From Short-term Memory to Working Memory
The concept of primary memory (PM) in the levels-of-processing (LOP) framework is described and illustrated. The history of the short-term/long-term memory (STM/LTM) distinction is reviewed. Early studies of STM in the Craik laboratory are described, including work on dichotic listening, the negative recency effect, and the surprising finding of long-lasting auditory information in STM. The distinction between PM and secondary memory is reviewed, and their respective roles in short-term retention discussed. Some experiments on release from proactive interference are described. The theoretical evolution of the construct of PM to that of working memory (WM) is described. The proposal that WM is equivalent to “attention paid to information in conscious awareness” is evaluated. It is argued that PM and WM are not separate entities, but are on a descriptive continuum. Further topics include the role of secondary memory in WM, and the possibility of LOP effects in WM (explored in experiments carried out by Craik and Nathan Rose). Further topics include a consideration of WM as a set of separable abilities, hierarchical views of WM, and a final integrated view of short-term retention.