Epistemic Logics
Standard possible-worlds epistemic logic gives rise to the problem of logical omniscience. There are attempts to deal with the problem without using impossible worlds. A number of these approaches are discussed in this chapter and all are found wanting. The impossible worlds approach is immediately more successful, but faces a deep problem: how should impossible worlds be constrained, so as to give adequate models of knowledge and belief? One option is to take impossible worlds to be closed under some weaker-than-classical logic. But this approach does not genuinely solve the problem of logical omniscience. A different approach is the dynamic one, whereby epistemic states are not closed at any one time, but nevertheless evolve towards closure in a dynamic way.