The notion of ‘word’ in Makary Kotoko

2020 ◽  
pp. 260-284
Author(s):  
Sean Allison
Keyword(s):  
Functional Elements ◽  
Word Classes ◽  
Per Se ◽  
Concept Of Word

Based on criteria proposed by Dixon and Aikhenvald (2002) for identifying grammatical and phonological words in a language, this chapter presents the notion of ‘word’ in Makary Kotoko (Chadic, Cameroon). The criteria of (i) pause phenomena, (ii) isolatability, (iii) meaning, and (iv) tone assignment are determinative, not for the identification of word per se, but for identifying word classes—in particular, the major word classes of the language: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and ideophone. Misalignment between grammatical and phonological words occurs with functional elements of the language and is addressed in a discussion of the clitics of the language. Clitic behaviour creates issues for determining orthographic words for this language which has had no known written tradition until fairly recently. Words used for expressing the concept of ‘word’ are discussed and the chapter concludes with a brief presentation of some word games used by speakers of Makary Kotoko.

Word classes and the scope of lexical flexibility in Tongan

2017 ◽  
Vol 41 (2) ◽  
pp. 445-495 ◽  
Author(s):  
Svenja Völkel
Keyword(s):  
Word Class ◽  
Crucial Issue ◽  
Word Classes ◽  
Per Se ◽  
Lexical Items ◽  
Manner Adverb

Abstract Tongan is an Oceanic language belonging to the Polynesian subgroup. Based on previous work (Churchward 1953, Tchekhoff 1981, Broschart 1997), Tongan has been classified as a 'flexible' language by various typological approaches on word classes (Hengeveld 1992, Rijkhoff 1998, Croft 2001). This means that lexical items are per se not categorised in terms of major word classes, but they can function as noun, verb, adjective and manner adverb without morphosyntactic derivation. However, not all lexemes are entirely flexible occurring within all these constructions. So the crucial issue of how flexible Tongan really is remains. This question will be addressed by a survey based on a combination of syntactic and semantic word class criteria – basically following Croft's prototype approach (2000, 2001) but also considering Hengeveld & Rijkhoff's work (Hengeveld 1992, Hengeveld, Rijkhoff & Siewierska 2004, Hengeveld 2013) Evans & Osada's work (2005). It reveals the scope of lexical flexibility for various lexemes and semantic groups.

Die Wortklassen des Bambara: Bestand und Abgrenzung

1989 ◽  
Vol 42 (6) ◽  
Author(s):  
Siegmund Brauner
Keyword(s):  
Communication Process ◽  
Word Classes ◽  
Syntactic Function ◽  
Concept Of Word

SummaryThe article is a revised version of the author’s concept of word classes in Bambara first published in Lehrbuch den Bambara (Leipzig 1974). The problem is also discussed in modern Mande linguistic studies of various authors (Dumestre, Ebermann etc.). Trying to further develop Fries’ concept (The Structure of English, London 1963) of analysing word classes from their grammatical-syntactical distribution, four form classes and seven classes of functional words are recognised in Bambara. In addition to these two groups a third one is postulated: communicative-pragmatic words, which do not have any syntactic function nor do they serve to realise them, they only modify the speech intention and the communication process.

Wordhood in Chamacoco

2020 ◽  
pp. 78-120
Author(s):  
Luca Ciucci
Keyword(s):  
Morphological Structure ◽  
Vowel Harmony ◽  
Prosodic Features ◽  
Complex Predicates ◽  
Phonological Word ◽  
Word Classes ◽  
Concept Of Word ◽  
Phonological Rules

This chapter investigates ‘wordhood’ in Chamacoco, a Zamucoan language with about 2,000 speakers who traditionally inhabit the department of Alto Paraguay in Paraguay. After having examined the concept of ‘word’ in Chamacoco culture and the phonological inventory of the language, this chapter defines the phonological word according to its phonological rules, segmental features, and prosodic features (stress, nasal harmony and vowel harmony). Then, the morphological structure of the main word classes (verbs, nouns and adjectives) is outlined in order to identify the grammatical word and the mismatches between phonological and grammatical word. The latter can consist of one or more phonological words, as for compound subordinators, complex predicates, and instances of reduplication. By contrast, owing to cliticization, one phonological word can comprise two or more grammatical words. Finally, the chapter describes the properties of regular clitics and distinguishes them from morphemes which are independent phonological words frequently undergoing cliticization.

scholarly journals Ausdrucksarten – ein neuer Zugang zur Wortschatzvermittlung im DaF-Unterricht

2010 ◽  
Vol 41 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Mathilde Hennig ◽  
Isabel Buchwald-Wargenau
Keyword(s):  
Foreign Language ◽  
Multiword Expressions ◽  
Word Classes ◽  
Concept Of Word

Word classes are one of the most successful and famous concepts of linguistics. They are an essential part of school grammar as well as of teaching German as a foreign language. Categorizing words in word classes is based on the assumptions that a) 'word' is a relevant and definable linguistic category and b) (single) words are worth classifying. The article concentrates on the second assumption by bringing into play lexicalized multiword expressions, such as hin und her, Wohl und Wehe, im Falle, and weder noch. Because the meanings of these expressions are not predictable (due to the principle of compositionality), it does not make sense to classify the single words which are part of the expression into word classes separately. Therefore, we suggest extending the concept of word classes by including the concept of classes of multiword expression.

scholarly journals Towards a model of the syntax–discourse interface: a syntactic analysis of please

2020 ◽  
pp. 1-33
Author(s):  
REBECCA WOODS
Keyword(s):  
Speech Act ◽  
Discourse Markers ◽  
Illocutionary Force ◽  
Syntactic Analysis ◽  
Final Position ◽  
Functional Elements ◽  
Discourse Marker ◽  
Number Of Factors ◽  
Per Se ◽  
Discourse Interface

This article examines the syntax and semantics of please. Using a mainstream generative syntactic framework, I propose that syntactically integrated please is a discourse marker that marks the clause in which it occurs as a request. Please may appear clause-initially or clause-medially as determined by a number of factors, including clause type, modality, negation and the application of ellipsis. There is also a homophonous marker please that occurs in clause-final position; clause-final please does not mark requests per se but ‘bonds’ a speaker and addressee, reinforcing their relationship as requester and requestee. This analysis of please provides support for syntactic approaches to speech act structure, particularly the claim that illocutionary force is part of narrow syntax rather than a solely pragmatic phenomenon. The article provides support for pursuing a model of the syntax–discourse interface in which interactions between discourse markers and clause-internal functional elements, such as mood and modality, form the interface between syntax and discourse.

Morphological Units: Words

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Paolo Ramat
Keyword(s):  
Word Formation ◽  
Parts Of Speech ◽  
Word Classes ◽  
Concept Of Word

This chapter deals with the discussion that has concerned and concerns the very concept of ‘word’. It considers different definitions which have been advanced according different theoretical positions. Thereafter, it examines various phenomena which are strictly bound to ‘word’: word compounds and multi-word expressions, word formation rules, word classes (or Parts-of-Speech), splinters, univerbation and, finally, word blendings

scholarly journals Which Word Classes Can The Word “Off” Belong To and Why?

2012 ◽  
Vol 1 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Erick Daniel López Lozano
Keyword(s):  
Language Learners ◽  
Word Class ◽  
Lexical Categories ◽  
Word Classes ◽  
Concept Of Word

Linguistic descriptions of all languages presuppose the division of words into distinct classes or lexical categories (Zyzik and Azevedo, 2009). The discovery of these distinctions - of words being nouns, adjective, verbs, etc. - is a key aspect of learning any given language (Celce-Murcia and Larsen Freeman, 1999); this distinction becomes of paramount importance if one considers too, that one word may in fact undertake more than one form, which causes complications for language learners; hence the importance for better understanding how this phenomenon takes place. The purpose of this essay is to explain and illustrate how one word can belong to different word classes. The first section introduces the concept of word class and the different word classes there are. The following sections illustrate how one word– in this case the word “off” – can in fact take different forms and in doing so have different meanings.

Origin of Hepatic Nuclear Inclusion Bodies

1973 ◽  
Vol 31 ◽  
pp. 426-427
Author(s):  
F. G. Zaki ◽  
J. A. Greenlee ◽  
C. H. Keysser
Keyword(s):  
Inclusion Bodies ◽  
Storage Disease ◽  
Glycogen Storage ◽  
Nutritional Deficiencies ◽  
Nuclear Inclusion ◽  
Electron Microscopic ◽  
Human Liver Cells ◽  
Microscopic Studies ◽  
Per Se ◽  
Experimental Liver

Nuclear inclusion bodies seen in human liver cells may appear in light microscopy as deposits of fat or glycogen resulting from various diseases such as diabetes, hepatitis, cholestasis or glycogen storage disease. These deposits have been also encountered in experimental liver injury and in our animals subjected to nutritional deficiencies, drug intoxication and hepatocarcinogens. Sometimes these deposits fail to demonstrate the presence of fat or glycogen and show PAS negative reaction. Such deposits are considered as viral products.Electron microscopic studies of these nuclei revealed that such inclusion bodies were not products of the nucleus per se but were mere segments of endoplasmic reticulum trapped inside invaginating nuclei (Fig. 1-3).

The Eleventh Circuit Holds that Agreements in which Pharmaceutical Companies Pay Generic Companies Not to Compete May be Valid

2004 ◽  
Vol 32 (1) ◽  
pp. 181-184
Author(s):  
Amy Garrigues
Keyword(s):  
Pharmaceutical Companies ◽  
Court Decisions ◽  
Patent Holder ◽  
Trial Court ◽  
Court Of Appeals ◽  
The Us ◽  
Antitrust Laws ◽  
Per Se ◽  
Appeals Court ◽  
Two Sides

On September 15, 2003, the US. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit held that agreements between pharmaceutical and generic companies not to compete are not per se unlawful if these agreements do not expand the existing exclusionary right of a patent. The Valley DrugCo.v.Geneva Pharmaceuticals decision emphasizes that the nature of a patent gives the patent holder exclusive rights, and if an agreement merely confirms that exclusivity, then it is not per se unlawful. With this holding, the appeals court reversed the decision of the trial court, which held that agreements under which competitors are paid to stay out of the market are per se violations of the antitrust laws. An examination of the Valley Drugtrial and appeals court decisions sheds light on the two sides of an emerging legal debate concerning the validity of pay-not-to-compete agreements, and more broadly, on the appropriate balance between the seemingly competing interests of patent and antitrust laws.

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