scholarly journals The cerebellar anatomy of red junglefowl and white leghorn chickens: insights into the effects of domestication on the cerebellum

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 (10) ◽  
Author(s):  
Kelsey J. Racicot ◽  
Christina Popic ◽  
Felipe Cunha ◽  
Dominic Wright ◽  
Rie Henriksen ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Granule Cells ◽  
Cell Layer ◽  
General Pattern ◽  
Brain Regions ◽  
Granule Cell Layer ◽  
Recent Theory ◽  
Red Junglefowl ◽  
Quantitative Analyses ◽  
Human Use ◽  
Cerebellar Anatomy

Domestication is the process by which wild organisms become adapted for human use. Many phenotypic changes are associated with animal domestication, including decreases in brain and brain region sizes. In contrast with this general pattern, the chicken has a larger cerebellum compared with the wild red junglefowl, but what neuroanatomical changes are responsible for this difference have yet to be investigated. Here, we quantified cell layer volumes, neuron numbers and neuron sizes in the cerebella of chickens and junglefowl. Chickens have larger, more folded cerebella with more and larger granule cells than junglefowl, but neuron numbers and cerebellar folding were proportional to cerebellum size. However, chickens do have relatively larger granule cell layer volumes and relatively larger granule cells than junglefowl. Thus, the chicken cerebellum can be considered a scaled-up version of the junglefowl cerebellum, but with enlarged granule cells. The combination of scaling neuron number and disproportionate enlargement of cell bodies partially supports a recent theory that domestication does not affect neuronal density within brain regions. Whether the neuroanatomical changes we observed are typical of domestication or not requires similar quantitative analyses in other domesticated species and across multiple brain regions.

Cerebellar proteoglycans regulate sonic hedgehog responses during development

Development ◽  
2002 ◽  
Vol 129 (9) ◽  
pp. 2223-2232 ◽  
Author(s):  
Joshua B. Rubin ◽  
Yoojin Choi ◽  
Rosalind A. Segal
Keyword(s):  
Heparan Sulfate ◽  
Sonic Hedgehog ◽  
Granule Cell ◽  
Granule Cells ◽  
Cerebellar Granule Cells ◽  
Cell Layer ◽  
Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans ◽  
Granule Cell Layer ◽  
Conserved Sequence ◽  
External Granule Cell Layer

Sonic hedgehog promotes proliferation of developing cerebellar granule cells. As sonic hedgehog is expressed in the cerebellum throughout life it is not clear why proliferation occurs only in the early postnatal period and only in the external granule cell layer. We asked whether heparan sulfate proteoglycans might regulate sonic hedgehog-induced proliferation and thereby contribute to the specialized proliferative environment of the external granule cell layer. We identified a conserved sequence within sonic hedgehog that is essential for binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycans, but not for binding to the receptor patched. Sonic hedgehog interactions with heparan sulfate proteoglycans promote maximal proliferation of postnatal day 6 granule cells. By contrast, proliferation of less mature granule cells is not affected by sonic hedgehog-proteoglycan interactions. The importance of proteoglycans for proliferation increases during development in parallel with increasing expression of the glycosyltransferase genes, exostosin 1 and exostosin 2. These data suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans, synthesized by exostosins, may be critical determinants of granule cell proliferation.

BDNF stimulates migration of cerebellar granule cells

Development ◽  
2002 ◽  
Vol 129 (6) ◽  
pp. 1435-1442 ◽  
Author(s):  
Paul R. Borghesani ◽  
Jean Michel Peyrin ◽  
Robyn Klein ◽  
Joshua Rubin ◽  
Alexandre R. Carter ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Granule Cell ◽  
Granule Cells ◽  
Cerebellar Granule Cells ◽  
Cell Layer ◽  
Time Lapse ◽  
Granule Cell Layer ◽  
Boyden Chamber ◽  
Cerebellar Granule ◽  
Proliferative Zone ◽  
On Line

During development of the nervous system, neural progenitors arise in proliferative zones, then exit the cell cycle and migrate away from these zones. Here we show that migration of cerebellar granule cells out of their proliferative zone, the external granule cell layer (EGL), is impaired in Bdnf–/– mice. The reason for impaired migration is that BDNF directly and acutely stimulates granule cell migration. Purified Bdnf–/– granule cells show defects in initiation of migration along glial fibers and in Boyden chamber assays. This phenotype can be rescued by exogenous BDNF. Using time-lapse video microscopy we find that BDNF is acutely motogenic as it stimulates migration of individual granule cells immediately after addition. The stimulation of migration reflects both a chemokinetic and chemotactic effect of BDNF. Collectively, these data demonstrate that BDNF is directly motogenic for granule cells and provides a directional cue promoting migration from the EGL to the internal granule cell layer (IGL). Movies available on-line

Altered synaptic transmission in dentate gyrus of rats reared in complex environments: evidence from hippocampal slices maintained in vitro

1986 ◽  
Vol 55 (4) ◽  
pp. 739-750 ◽  
Author(s):  
E. J. Green ◽  
W. T. Greenough
Keyword(s):  
Synaptic Transmission ◽  
Dentate Gyrus ◽  
Granule Cell ◽  
Granule Cells ◽  
Cell Layer ◽  
Molecular Layer ◽  
Hippocampal Slices ◽  
Granule Cell Layer ◽  
Complex Environments ◽  
Rearing Environment

Pre- and postsynaptic responses to activation of medial perforant path (MPP) axons were examined in hippocampal slices taken from rats reared for 3-4 wk in relatively complex (EC) or individual cage (IC) environments. Three types of extracellular field potentials were recorded in the infrapyramidal blade of the dentate gyrus: 1) granule cell population spikes (PSs), which reflect the number and synchrony of discharging granule cells (2), 2) population excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs), which reflect the amount of excitatory synaptic current flow into dendrites (28), and 3) presynaptic fiber volleys (FVs), which reflect the number of activated axons (28). Stimulation of the MPP evoked significantly larger PSs in slices taken from EC rats. There was no significant effect of rearing environment on PS/EPSP relationships. The slopes of EPSPs recorded at the site of synaptic activation in the dentate molecular layer and at the major current source in the dentate granule cell layer were significantly greater in slices taken from EC rats. The presynaptic FV was recorded at the site of synaptic activation in the molecular layer. FV amplitude did not differ significantly as a function of rearing environment. To examine possible differences in tissue impedance, granule cells were activated by stimulating granule cell axons in the dentate hilus and recording the antidromic PS in the granule cell layer. Antidromic PS amplitude was not significantly affected by rearing environment. The relative permanence of the experience-dependent alterations in synaptic transmission was assessed by comparing slices taken from rats that had been reared for 4 wk in complex environments followed by 3-4 wk in individual cages with those from rats reared for 7-8 wk in individual cages. There were no significant differences in MPP synaptic transmission between these groups of animals. The results suggest that experience in a relatively complex environment is associated with greater MPP synaptic transmission arising from an increased synaptic input to granule cells; the greater MPP synaptic transmission associated with behavioral experience can occur independent of behavioral state, influences from extrahippocampal brain regions and intrahippocampal inhibitory activity; and the experience-dependent synaptic alterations in the dentate gyrus are transient, in contrast to experience-dependent morphological alterations described in occipital cortex. The possible relationship of these alterations to the phenomenon of long-term enhancement is discussed.

Dysplastic gangliocytoma of cerebellum in a newborn

1984 ◽  
Vol 60 (4) ◽  
pp. 845-847 ◽  
Author(s):  
Uros Roessmann ◽  
Thamnook Wongmongkolrit
Keyword(s):  
Granule Cell ◽  
Granule Cells ◽  
Ganglion Cells ◽  
Cell Layer ◽  
Molecular Layer ◽  
Granule Cell Layer ◽  
Dysplastic Gangliocytoma ◽  
Content Type ◽  
External Granule Cell Layer ◽  
Fine Print

✓ Dysplastic gangliocytoma of the cerebellum is reported in a newborn. It is characterized by large ganglion cells in the molecular layer and premature attenuation of the external granule-cell layer. The internal granule-cell layer appears rarefied but otherwise normally organized. It appears that in this disease the migrating granule cells mature too early and become arrested in the molecular layer, because of their abnormal forms, while others continue to migrate and grow in size in their normal location in the inner granule-cell layer.

scholarly journals The RacGAP βChimaerin is essential for cerebellar granule cell migration

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jason A. Estep ◽  
Wenny Wong ◽  
Yiu-Cheung E. Wong ◽  
Brian M. Loui ◽  
Martin M. Riccomagno
Keyword(s):  
Granule Cell ◽  
Granule Cells ◽  
Cell Layer ◽  
Outer Part ◽  
Mossy Fibers ◽  
Small Population ◽  
Cerebellar Granule Cell ◽  
Granule Cell Layer ◽  
Radial Migration ◽  
Cerebellar Granule

AbstractDuring mammalian cerebellar development, postnatal granule cell progenitors proliferate in the outer part of the External Granule Layer (EGL). Postmitotic granule progenitors migrate tangentially in the inner EGL before switching to migrate radially inward, past the Purkinje cell layer, to achieve their final position in the mature Granule Cell Layer (GCL). Here, we show that the RacGAP β-chimaerin is expressed by a small population of late-born, premigratory granule cells. β-chimaerin deficiency causes a subset of granule cells to become arrested in the EGL, where they differentiate and form ectopic neuronal clusters. These clusters of granule cells are able to recruit aberrantly projecting mossy fibers. Collectively, these data suggest a role for β-chimaerin as an intracellular mediator of Cerebellar Granule Cell radial migration.

scholarly journals Morphological constraints on cerebellar granule cell combinatorial diversity

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jesse I. Gilmer ◽  
Abigail L. Person
Keyword(s):  
Granule Cell ◽  
Granule Cells ◽  
Cell Layer ◽  
Mossy Fiber ◽  
Mossy Fibers ◽  
Cerebellar Granule Cell ◽  
Granule Cell Layer ◽  
Information Encoding ◽  
Cerebellar Granule ◽  
Local Sampling

AbstractCombinatorial expansion by the cerebellar granule cell layer (GCL) is fundamental to theories of cerebellar contributions to motor control and learning. Granule cells sample approximately four mossy fiber inputs and are thought to form a combinatorial code useful for pattern separation and learning. We constructed a spatially realistic model of the cerebellar granule cell layer and examined how GCL architecture contributes to granule cell (GrC) combinatorial diversity. We found that GrC combinatorial diversity saturates quickly as mossy fiber input diversity increases, and that this saturation is in part a consequence of short dendrites, which limit access to diverse inputs and favor dense sampling of local inputs. This local sampling also produced GrCs that were combinatorially redundant, even when input diversity was extremely high. In addition, we found that mossy fibers clustering, which is a common anatomical pattern, also led to increased redundancy of GrC input combinations. We related this redundancy to hypothesized roles of temporal expansion of GrC information encoding in service of learned timing, and show that GCL architecture produces GrC populations that support both temporal and combinatorial expansion. Finally, we used novel anatomical measurements from mice of either sex to inform modeling of sparse and filopodia-bearing mossy fibers, finding that these circuit features uniquely contribute to enhancing GrC diversification and redundancy. Our results complement information theoretic studies of granule layer structure and provide insight into the contributions of granule layer anatomical features to afferent mixing.Significance StatementCerebellar granule cells are among the simplest neurons, with tiny somata and on average just four dendrites. These characteristics, along with their dense organization, inspired influential theoretical work on the granule cell layer (GCL) as a combinatorial expander, where each granule cell represents a unique combination of inputs. Despite the centrality of these theories to cerebellar physiology, the degree of expansion supported by anatomically realistic patterns of inputs is unknown. Using modeling and anatomy, we show that realistic input patterns constrain combinatorial diversity by producing redundant combinations, which nevertheless could support temporal diversification of like-combinations, suitable for learned timing. Our study suggests a neural substrate for producing high levels of both combinatorial and temporal diversity in the GCL.

Excitatory Synaptic Input to Granule Cells Increases With Time After Kainate Treatment

2001 ◽  
Vol 85 (3) ◽  
pp. 1067-1077 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jean-Pierre Wuarin ◽  
F. Edward Dudek
Keyword(s):  
Dentate Gyrus ◽  
Granule Cell ◽  
Synaptic Input ◽  
Granule Cells ◽  
Flash Photolysis ◽  
Cell Layer ◽  
Mossy Fiber ◽  
Hippocampal Slices ◽  
Granule Cell Layer ◽  
Excitatory Synaptic Input

Temporal lobe epilepsy is usually associated with a latent period and an increased seizure frequency following a precipitating insult. After kainate treatment, the mossy fibers of the dentate gyrus are hypothesized to form recurrent excitatory circuits between granule cells, thus leading to a progressive increase in the excitatory input to granule cells. Three groups of animals were studied as a function of time after kainate treatment: 1–2 wk, 2–4 wk, and 10–51 wk. All the animals studied 10–51 wk after kainate treatment were observed to have repetitive spontaneous seizures. Whole cell patch-clamp recordings in hippocampal slices showed that the amplitude and frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in granule cells increased with time after kainate treatment. This increased excitatory synaptic input was correlated with the intensity of the Timm stain in the inner molecular layer (IML). Flash photolysis of caged glutamate applied in the granule cell layer evoked repetitive EPSCs in 10, 32, and 66% of the granule cells at the different times after kainate treatment. When inhibition was reduced with bicuculline, photostimulation of the granule cell layer evoked epileptiform bursts of action potentials only in granule cells from rats 10–51 wk after kainate treatment. These data support the hypothesis that kainate-induced mossy fiber sprouting in the IML results in the progressive formation of aberrant excitatory connections between granule cells. They also suggest that the probability of occurrence of electrographic seizures in the dentate gyrus increases with time after kainate treatment.

scholarly journals Effects of Phosphatidylserine Source of Docosahexaenoic Acid on Cerebellar Development in Preterm Pigs

2020 ◽  
Vol 10 (8) ◽  
pp. 475 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel Chizhikov ◽  
Randal K. Buddington ◽  
Igor Y. Iskusnykh
Keyword(s):  
Preterm Birth ◽  
Docosahexaenoic Acid ◽  
Purkinje Cells ◽  
Cognitive Processing ◽  
Granule Cell ◽  
Granule Cells ◽  
Cell Layer ◽  
Granule Cell Layer ◽  
Cerebellar Development ◽  
Control Group

Preterm birth, a major contributor to infant mortality and morbidity, impairs development of the cerebellum, the brain region involved in cognitive processing and motor function. Previously, we showed that at term-equivalent age, preterm pigs that received formula supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) esterified to phosphatidylserine (PS) had cerebellar weights similar to those of newborn term pigs and were heavier than control preterm pigs. However, whether PS-DHA promotes the development of specific cerebellar cell populations or enhances key developmental processes remains unknown. Here we investigated the effects of the PS-DHA on development of the cerebellum in preterm pigs delivered via caesarean section and reared for ten days on a milk replacer with either PS-DHA (experimental group) or sunflower oil (control group). Upon necropsy, key cerebellar populations were analyzed using immunohistochemistry. Consumption of PS-DHA was associated with the expansion of undifferentiated granule cell precursors and increased proliferation in the external granule cell layer (EGL). Preterm pigs that received PS-DHA also had significantly fewer apoptotic cells in the internal granule cell layer (IGL) that contains differentiated granule neurons. PS-DHA did not affect the number of differentiating granule cells in the inner EGL, thickness of the inner EGL, density of Purkinje cells, or Bergmann glial fibers, or diameter of Purkinje cells. Thus, PS-DHA may support cerebellar development in preterm subjects by enhancing proliferation of granule cells, a process specifically inhibited by preterm birth, and increasing the survival of granule cells in the IGL. These findings suggest that PS-DHA is a promising candidate for clinical studies directed at enhancing brain development.

Intracellular responses from granule cell layer in slices of rat hippocampus: perforant path synapse

1976 ◽  
Vol 39 (2) ◽  
pp. 384-393 ◽  
Author(s):  
F. E. Dudek ◽  
S. A. Deadwyler ◽  
C. W. Cotman ◽  
G. Lynch
Keyword(s):  
Granule Cell ◽  
Action Potentials ◽  
Granule Cells ◽  
Cell Layer ◽  
Hippocampal Slices ◽  
Field Potential ◽  
Granule Cell Layer ◽  
Perforant Path ◽  
Epsp Amplitude

Intracellular responses were recorded in vitro from the denate granule cell layer of hippocampal slices prepared from adult rats. Spontaneous activity of granule cells in vitro consisted of action potentials and small, graded depolarizations, presumably of synaptic origin. Granule cells could be activated by injection of depolarizing current or release of hyperpolarizing current. Individual granule cells spatially summed input from the perforant path and fired multiple action potentials in vitro following strong presynaptic volleys. Depolarization decreased and hyperpolarization increased the EPSP amplitude, which is consistent with a conductance-increase mechanism. Although we could demonstrate postexcitatory inhibition in some cells, granule cells in vitro appeared to receive less inhibitory feedback than in vivo, EPSP amplitude and spike output of granule cells showed frequency potentiation and posttetanic potentiation to perforant path stimulation. These intracellular responses in vitro complement some of the findings from field-potential analyses of the dentate gyrus in intact animals.

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