Cortical Control of Sound Localization in the Cat: Unilateral Cooling Deactivation of 19 Cerebral Areas

2004 ◽  
Vol 92 (3) ◽  
pp. 1625-1643 ◽  
Author(s):  
Shveta Malhotra ◽  
Amee J. Hall ◽  
Stephen G. Lomber
Keyword(s):  
Auditory Cortex ◽  
Sound Localization ◽  
Broad Band ◽  
Acoustic Stimulus ◽  
Anterior Ectosylvian Sulcus ◽  
Area 5 ◽  
Area 6 ◽  
Auditory Field ◽  
Lateral Area ◽  
Medial Area

We examined the ability of mature cats to accurately orient to, and approach, an acoustic stimulus during unilateral reversible cooling deactivation of primary auditory cortex (AI) or 1 of 18 other cerebral loci. After attending to a central visual stimulus, the cats learned to orient to a 100-ms broad-band, white-noise stimulus emitted from a central speaker or 1 of 12 peripheral sites (at 15° intervals) positioned along the horizontal plane. Twenty-eight cats had two to six cryoloops implanted over multiple cerebral loci. Within auditory cortex, unilateral deactivation of AI, the posterior auditory field (PAF) or the anterior ectosylvian sulcus (AES) resulted in orienting deficits throughout the contralateral field. However, unilateral deactivation of the anterior auditory field, the second auditory cortex, or the ventroposterior auditory field resulted in no deficits on the orienting task. In multisensory cortex, unilateral deactivation of neither ventral or dorsal posterior ectosylvian cortices nor anterior or posterior area 7 resulted in any deficits. No deficits were identified during unilateral cooling of the five visual regions flanking auditory or multisensory cortices: posterior or anterior ii suprasylvian sulcus, posterior suprasylvian sulcus or dorsal or ventral posterior suprasylvian gyrus. In motor cortex, we identified contralateral orienting deficits during unilateral cooling of lateral area 5 (5L) or medial area 6 (6m) but not medial area 5 or lateral area 6. In a control visual-orienting task, areas 5L and 6m also yielded deficits to visual stimuli presented in the contralateral field. Thus the sound-localization deficits identified during unilateral deactivation of area 5L or 6m were not unimodal and are most likely the result of motor rather than perceptual impairments. Overall, three regions in auditory cortex (AI, PAF, AES) are critical for accurate sound localization as assessed by orienting.

scholarly journals Sound Localization During Homotopic and Heterotopic Bilateral Cooling Deactivation of Primary and Nonprimary Auditory Cortical Areas in the Cat

2007 ◽  
Vol 97 (1) ◽  
pp. 26-43 ◽  
Author(s):  
Shveta Malhotra ◽  
Stephen G. Lomber
Keyword(s):  
Auditory Cortex ◽  
Sound Localization ◽  
Broad Band ◽  
Acoustic Stimulus ◽  
Primary Auditory Cortex ◽  
Orienting Response ◽  
Normal Function ◽  
Anterior Ectosylvian Sulcus ◽  
Accurate Localization ◽  
Auditory Field

Although the contributions of primary auditory cortex (AI) to sound localization have been extensively studied in a large number of mammals, little is known of the contributions of nonprimary auditory cortex to sound localization. Therefore the purpose of this study was to examine the contributions of both primary and all the recognized regions of acoustically responsive nonprimary auditory cortex to sound localization during both bilateral and unilateral reversible deactivation. The cats learned to make an orienting response (head movement and approach) to a 100-ms broad-band noise stimulus emitted from a central speaker or one of 12 peripheral sites (located in front of the animal, from left 90° to right 90°, at 15° intervals) along the horizontal plane after attending to a central visual stimulus. Twenty-one cats had one or two bilateral pairs of cryoloops chronically implanted over one of ten regions of auditory cortex. We examined AI [which included the dorsal zone (DZ)], the three other tonotopic fields [anterior auditory field (AAF), posterior auditory field (PAF), ventral posterior auditory field (VPAF)], as well as six nontonotopic regions that included second auditory cortex (AII), the anterior ectosylvian sulcus (AES), the insular (IN) region, the temporal (T) region [which included the ventral auditory field (VAF)], the dorsal posterior ectosylvian (dPE) gyrus [which included the intermediate posterior ectosylvian (iPE) gyrus], and the ventral posterior ectosylvian (vPE) gyrus. In accord with earlier studies, unilateral deactivation of AI/DZ caused sound localization deficits in the contralateral field. Bilateral deactivation of AI/DZ resulted in bilateral sound localization deficits throughout the 180° field examined. Of the three other tonotopically organized fields, only deactivation of PAF resulted in sound localization deficits. These deficits were virtually identical to the unilateral and bilateral deactivation results obtained during AI/DZ deactivation. Of the six nontonotopic regions examined, only deactivation of AES resulted in sound localization deficits in the contralateral hemifield during unilateral deactivation. Although bilateral deactivation of AI/DZ, PAF, or AES resulted in profound sound localization deficits throughout the entire field, the cats were generally able to orient toward the hemifield that contained the acoustic stimulus, but not accurately identify the location of the stimulus. Neither unilateral nor bilateral deactivation of areas AAF, VPAF, AII, IN, T, dPE, nor vPE had any effect on the sound localization task. Finally, bilateral heterotopic deactivations of AI/DZ, PAF, or AES yielded deficits that were as profound as bilateral homotopic cooling of any of these sites. The fact that deactivation of any one region (AI/DZ, PAF, or AES) was sufficient to produce a deficit indicated that normal function of all three regions was necessary for normal sound localization. Neither unilateral nor bilateral deactivation of AI/DZ, PAF, or AES affected the accurate localization of a visual target. The results suggest that hemispheric deactivations contribute independently to sound localization deficits.

Sound Localization Deficits During Reversible Deactivation of Primary Auditory Cortex and/or the Dorsal Zone

2008 ◽  
Vol 99 (4) ◽  
pp. 1628-1642 ◽  
Author(s):  
Shveta Malhotra ◽  
G. Christopher Stecker ◽  
John C. Middlebrooks ◽  
Stephen G. Lomber
Keyword(s):  
Auditory Cortex ◽  
Sound Localization ◽  
Primary Auditory Cortex ◽  
Noise Burst ◽  
Orienting Response ◽  
Error Rates ◽  
Broadband Noise ◽  
Physiological Data ◽  
Anterior Ectosylvian Sulcus ◽  
Auditory Field

We examined the contributions of primary auditory cortex (A1) and the dorsal zone of auditory cortex (DZ) to sound localization behavior during separate and combined unilateral and bilateral deactivation. From a central visual fixation point, cats learned to make an orienting response (head movement and approach) to a 100-ms broadband noise burst emitted from a central speaker or one of 12 peripheral sites (located in front of the animal, from left 90° to right 90°, at 15° intervals) along the horizontal plane. Following training, each cat was implanted with separate cryoloops over A1 and DZ bilaterally. Unilateral deactivation of A1 or DZ or simultaneous unilateral deactivation of A1 and DZ (A1/DZ) resulted in spatial localization deficits confined to the contralateral hemifield, whereas sound localization to positions in the ipsilateral hemifield remained unaffected. Simultaneous bilateral deactivation of both A1 and DZ resulted in sound localization performance dropping from near-perfect to chance (7.7% correct) across the entire field. Errors made during bilateral deactivation of A1/DZ tended to be confined to the same hemifield as the target. However, unlike the profound sound localization deficit that occurs when A1 and DZ are deactivated together, deactivation of either A1 or DZ alone produced partial and field-specific deficits. For A1, bilateral deactivation resulted in higher error rates (performance dropping to ∼45%) but relatively small errors (mostly within 30° of the target). In contrast, bilateral deactivation of DZ produced somewhat fewer errors (performance dropping to only ∼60% correct), but the errors tended to be larger, often into the incorrect hemifield. Therefore individual deactivation of either A1 or DZ produced specific and unique sound localization deficits. The results of the present study reveal that DZ plays a role in sound localization. Along with previous anatomical and physiological data, these behavioral data support the view that A1 and DZ are distinct cortical areas. Finally, the findings that deactivation of either A1 or DZ alone produces partial sound localization deficits, whereas deactivation of either posterior auditory field (PAF) or anterior ectosylvian sulcus (AES) produces profound sound localization deficits, suggests that PAF and AES make more significant contributions to sound localization than either A1 or DZ.

Codes for Sound-Source Location in Nontonotopic Auditory Cortex

1998 ◽  
Vol 80 (2) ◽  
pp. 863-881 ◽  
Author(s):  
John C. Middlebrooks ◽  
Li Xu ◽  
Ann Clock Eddins ◽  
David M. Green
Keyword(s):  
Auditory Cortex ◽  
Sound Localization ◽  
Sound Source ◽  
Source Location ◽  
Spike Timing ◽  
Moderate Level ◽  
Single Units ◽  
Sound Sources ◽  
Anterior Ectosylvian Sulcus ◽  
Spike Patterns

Middlebrooks, John C., Li Xu, Ann Clock Eddins, and David M. Green. Codes for sound-source location in nontonopic auditor cortex. J. Neurophysiol. 80: 863–881, 1998. We evaluated two hypothetical codes for sound-source location in the auditory cortex. The topographical code assumed that single neurons are selective for particular locations and that sound-source locations are coded by the cortical location of small populations of maximally activated neurons. The distributed code assumed that the responses of individual neurons can carry information about locations throughout 360° of azimuth and that accurate sound localization derives from information that is distributed across large populations of such panoramic neurons. We recorded from single units in the anterior ectosylvian sulcus area (area AES) and in area A2 of α-chloralose–anesthetized cats. Results obtained in the two areas were essentially equivalent. Noise bursts were presented from loudspeakers spaced in 20° intervals of azimuth throughout 360° of the horizontal plane. Spike counts of the majority of units were modulated >50% by changes in sound-source azimuth. Nevertheless, sound-source locations that produced greater than half-maximal spike counts often spanned >180° of azimuth. The spatial selectivity of units tended to broaden and, often, to shift in azimuth as sound pressure levels (SPLs) were increased to a moderate level. We sometimes saw systematic changes in spatial tuning along segments of electrode tracks as long as 1.5 mm but such progressions were not evident at higher sound levels. Moderate-level sounds presented anywhere in the contralateral hemifield produced greater than half-maximal activation of nearly all units. These results are not consistent with the hypothesis of a topographic code. We used an artificial-neural–network algorithm to recognize spike patterns and, thereby, infer the locations of sound sources. Network input consisted of spike density functions formed by averages of responses to eight stimulus repetitions. Information carried in the responses of single units permitted reasonable estimates of sound-source locations throughout 360° of azimuth. The most accurate units exhibited median errors in localization of <25°, meaning that the network output fell within 25° of the correct location on half of the trials. Spike patterns tended to vary with stimulus SPL, but level-invariant features of patterns permitted estimates of locations of sound sources that varied through 20-dB ranges. Sound localization based on spike patterns that preserved details of spike timing consistently was more accurate than localization based on spike counts alone. These results support the hypothesis that sound-source locations are represented by a distributed code and that individual neurons are, in effect, panoramic localizers.

What and How the Deaf Brain Sees

2019 ◽  
Vol 31 (8) ◽  
pp. 1091-1109 ◽  
Author(s):  
Caroline D. C. Alencar ◽  
Blake E. Butler ◽  
Stephen G. Lomber
Keyword(s):  
Auditory Cortex ◽  
Visual Processing ◽  
Sensory Modality ◽  
Primary Auditory Cortex ◽  
Visual Localization ◽  
Vernier Acuity ◽  
Anterior Ectosylvian Sulcus ◽  
Visual Functions ◽  
Auditory Field ◽  
The Brain

Over the past decade, there has been an unprecedented level of interest and progress into understanding visual processing in the brain of the deaf. Specifically, when the brain is deprived of input from one sensory modality (such as hearing), it often compensates with supranormal performance in one or more of the intact sensory systems (such as vision). Recent psychophysical, functional imaging, and reversible deactivation studies have converged to define the specific visual abilities that are enhanced in the deaf, as well as the cortical loci that undergo crossmodal plasticity in the deaf and are responsible for mediating these superior visual functions. Examination of these investigations reveals that central visual functions, such as object and facial discrimination, and peripheral visual functions, such as motion detection, visual localization, visuomotor synchronization, and Vernier acuity (measured in the periphery), are specifically enhanced in the deaf, compared with hearing participants. Furthermore, the cortical loci identified to mediate these functions reside in deaf auditory cortex: BA 41, BA 42, and BA 22, in addition to the rostral area, planum temporale, Te3, and temporal voice area in humans; primary auditory cortex, anterior auditory field, dorsal zone of auditory cortex, auditory field of the anterior ectosylvian sulcus, and posterior auditory field in cats; and primary auditory cortex and anterior auditory field in both ferrets and mice. Overall, the findings from these studies show that crossmodal reorganization in auditory cortex of the deaf is responsible for the superior visual abilities of the deaf.

Inactivation of the DSCF area of the auditory cortex with muscimol disrupts frequency discrimination in the mustached bat

1992 ◽  
Vol 68 (5) ◽  
pp. 1613-1623 ◽  
Author(s):  
H. Riquimaroux ◽  
S. J. Gaioni ◽  
N. Suga
Keyword(s):  
Auditory Cortex ◽  
Doppler Shift ◽  
Broad Band ◽  
Primary Auditory Cortex ◽  
Tone Burst ◽  
Signal Pulse ◽  
Gamma Aminobutyric Acid ◽  
Constant Frequency ◽  
Mustached Bat ◽  
Leg Flexion

1. The Jamaican mustached bat uses a biosonar signal (pulse) with eight major components: four harmonics each consisting of a long constant frequency (CF1-4) component followed by a short frequency-modulated (FM1-4) component. While flying, the bat adjusts the frequency of its pulse so as to maintain the CF2 of the Doppler-shifted echo at a frequency to which its cochlea is very sharply tuned. This Doppler shift (DS) compensation likely is mediated or influenced by the Doppler-shifted CF (DSCF) processing area of the primary auditory cortex, which only represents frequencies in the range of echo CF2s (60.6 to 62.3 kHz when the "resting" frequency of the CF2 is 61.0 kHz). 2. We trained four bats to discriminate between different trains of paired tone bursts that mimicked a bat's pulse CF2 and the accompanying echo CF2. The frequency of these CF2s ranged between 61.0 and 64.0 kHz. A discriminated shock avoidance procedure response was employed using a leg flexion. For one stimulus, the S+, the pulse and echo CF2s were the same frequency (delta f = 0, i.e., no Doppler shift). A leg flexion during the S+ turned off both the S+ and the scheduled shock. For a second stimulus, the S-, the echo CF2 was 0.05, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, or 2.0 kHz higher than the pulse CF2. A delta f of 0.05 kHz was a frequency difference of 0.08%. No shock followed the S-, and leg flexions had no consequences. Correct responses consisted of a leg flexion during the S+ and no flexion during the S-; these responses were added together to compute the percentage of correct responses. When a bat correctly responded at better than 75% for all the delta f s, muscimol, a potent agonist of gamma-aminobutyric acid, was bilaterally applied to inactivate the DSCF area. Performance on each delta f discrimination was then measured. 3. Initial attempts to condition the bats to flex their legs to the CF tones mimicking part of the natural pulses and echoes failed. When broad-band noise bursts were substituted, however, the conditioned response was rapidly established. The noise band-width was gradually reduced and then replaced with the CF tones. Discrimination training with the tone burst trains then commenced. Throughout this procedure, the bats maintained their responding to the stimuli. The bats typically required approximately 20-30 sessions to perform consistently (> or = 75% correct responses) a discrimination involving a 2 kHz delta f.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

scholarly journals Robust Counterpart Open Capacitated Vehicle Routing (RC-OCVRP) Model in Optimization of Garbage Transportation in District Sako and Sukarami, Palembang City

2018 ◽  
Vol 8 (6) ◽  
pp. 4382 ◽  
Author(s):  
Fitri Maya Puspita ◽  
Yusuf Hartono ◽  
Nadia Zuliaty Syaputri ◽  
Evi Yuliza ◽  
Weni Dwi Pratiwi
Keyword(s):  
Vehicle Routing ◽  
Branch And Bound ◽  
Robust Counterpart ◽  
Area 5 ◽  
Area 6 ◽  
Optimum Route ◽  
Capacitated Vehicle

<p>In this paper, the Robust Counterpart Open Capacitation Vehicle Rounting Problem (RC-OCVRP) Model has been established to optimize waste transport in districts Sako and districts Sukarami, Palembang City. This model is completed with the aid of LINGO 13.0 by using Branch and Bound solver to get the optimum route. For Sako districs, the routes are as follows: working area 1 is TPS 1-TPS 2-TPS 3-TPA with distance 53.39 km, working area 2 is TPS 1-TPS 2-TPS 3-TPA with distance 48.14 km, working area 3 is TPS 1-TPA with a distance of 22.98 km, and working area 4 is TPS 1-TPS 2-TPS 3-TPS 4-TPA with 45.45 km distance, and obtained the optimum route in Sukarami districts is as follows: working area 1 is TPS 1-TPS 2-TPA 44.39 km, working area 2 is TPS 1-TPS 2-TPS 3-TPA with distance 49.32 km, working area 3 is TPS 1-TPS 3-TPA-TPS 2-TPA with distance 58.57 km, and working area 4 is TPS 1-TPA with a distance of 24.07 km, working area 5 is TPS 1-TPS 3-TPA-TPS 2-TPS 4-TPA with a distance of 77.66 km, and working area 6 is a TPS 1-TPS 2-TPS 3-TPA with a distante 44.94 km.</p>

scholarly journals The human auditory brainstem response to running speech reveals a subcortical mechanism for selective attention

eLife ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 6 ◽  
Author(s):  
Antonio Elia Forte ◽  
Octave Etard ◽  
Tobias Reichenbach
Keyword(s):  
Mathematical Method ◽  
Selective Attention ◽  
Auditory Cortex ◽  
Auditory Brainstem Response ◽  
Background Noise ◽  
Ecological Validity ◽  
Acoustic Stimulus ◽  
Auditory Brainstem ◽  
Brainstem Response ◽  
Target Speaker

Humans excel at selectively listening to a target speaker in background noise such as competing voices. While the encoding of speech in the auditory cortex is modulated by selective attention, it remains debated whether such modulation occurs already in subcortical auditory structures. Investigating the contribution of the human brainstem to attention has, in particular, been hindered by the tiny amplitude of the brainstem response. Its measurement normally requires a large number of repetitions of the same short sound stimuli, which may lead to a loss of attention and to neural adaptation. Here we develop a mathematical method to measure the auditory brainstem response to running speech, an acoustic stimulus that does not repeat and that has a high ecological validity. We employ this method to assess the brainstem's activity when a subject listens to one of two competing speakers, and show that the brainstem response is consistently modulated by attention.

Processing of frequency-modulated sounds in the cat's anterior auditory field

1994 ◽  
Vol 71 (5) ◽  
pp. 1959-1975 ◽  
Author(s):  
B. Tian ◽  
J. P. Rauschecker
Keyword(s):  
Pure Tone ◽  
Frequency Tuning ◽  
Broad Band ◽  
Low Frequency ◽  
Sweep Rate ◽  
Direction Selectivity ◽  
Neuron Activity ◽  
Complex Sounds ◽  
Range Rate ◽  
Auditory Field

1. Single-neuron activity was recorded from the anterior auditory field (AAF) in the cortex of gas-anesthetized cats. 2. Tone bursts and broad-band complex sounds were used for auditory stimulation. Responses to frequency-modulated (FM) sounds, in particular, were studied systematically. 3. Linear FM sweeps were centered around the best frequency (BF) of a neuron and had an excursion large enough to cover its whole frequency tuning range. Rate and direction of change of the FM sweeps were varied. 4. In 69% of the FM responses, a peak was found at an instantaneous frequency that corresponded to the BF in the pure-tone response. Thirty-three percent of the units had multiple maxima in their FM response. These secondary maxima were not always reflected in the pure-tone response of the same neurons. 5. The vast majority of AAF neurons showed one of two types of selectivity for FM rate. Depending on the criterion, almost half of the cells (46%) preferred fast changes of > 200 Hz/ms (high-pass) in both FM directions. Forty-eight percent of all neurons showed band-pass behavior with a clear preference in the middle range of FM rates in one or both directions. Low-pass or all-pass neurons made up only a small proportion (4 and 1%, respectively) of AAF neurons. 6. When both directions of an FM sweep (low-to-high and high-to-low-frequency) were tested, 66% of the neurons clearly were selective for one direction. This selectivity was not present necessarily at the preferred FM rate. In general, FM direction selectivity was most pronounced at slower FM rates. 7. The selectivity of AAF neurons for the rate and direction of FM sounds makes these neurons suitable for the detection and analysis of communication sounds, which often contain FM components with a particular sweep rate and direction.

scholarly journals Reciprocal connectivity between secondary auditory cortical field and amygdala in mice

2019 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Hiroaki Tsukano ◽  
Xubin Hou ◽  
Masao Horie ◽  
Hiroki Kitaura ◽  
Nana Nishio ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Auditory Cortex ◽  
Primary Auditory Cortex ◽  
The Other ◽  
Axon Terminals ◽  
Reciprocal Connections ◽  
Cholera Toxin Subunit B ◽  
Auditory Field ◽  
Subunit B ◽  
Cortical Field ◽  
Feedback Pathway

AbstractRecent studies have examined the feedback pathway from the amygdala to the auditory cortex in conjunction with the feedforward pathway from the auditory cortex to the amygdala. However, these connections have not been fully characterized. Here, to visualize the comprehensive connectivity between the auditory cortex and amygdala, we injected cholera toxin subunit b (CTB), a bidirectional tracer, into multiple subfields in the mouse auditory cortex after identifying the location of these subfields using flavoprotein fluorescence imaging. After injecting CTB into the secondary auditory field (A2), we found densely innervated CTB-positive axon terminals that were mainly located in the lateral amygdala (La), and slight innervations in other divisions such as the basal amygdala. Moreover, we found a large number of retrogradely-stained CTB-positive neurons in La after injecting CTB into A2. When injecting CTB into the primary auditory cortex (A1), a small number of CTB-positive neurons and axons were visualized in the amygdala. Finally, we found a near complete absence of connections between the other auditory cortical fields and the amygdala. These data suggest that reciprocal connections between A2 and La are main conduits for communication between the auditory cortex and amygdala in mice.

Unit study of monkey frontal cortex: active localization of auditory and of visual stimuli

1986 ◽  
Vol 56 (4) ◽  
pp. 934-952 ◽  
Author(s):  
E. Vaadia ◽  
D. A. Benson ◽  
R. D. Hienz ◽  
M. H. Goldstein
Keyword(s):  
Auditory Cortex ◽  
Frontal Cortex ◽  
Broad Band ◽  
Primary Auditory Cortex ◽  
Auditory Localization ◽  
Visual Localization ◽  
Spatial Tuning ◽  
Active Localization ◽  
Localization Conditions ◽  
Localization Behavior

The influence of sound localization behavior on unit activity in the frontal cortex of awake rhesus monkeys was examined by comparing responses under three behavioral conditions: auditory localization, during which a response was required to the location of a sound (broad-band noise) source; auditory detect, during which a response was required to indicate the occurrence of the sound regardless of location; visual localization, during which no sounds were presented and a response was required to the location of a visual stimulus; and nonperform, presentation of auditory stimuli as in the first two conditions, but with the animal sitting passively. Extracellular microelectrode recordings were made in the periarcuate region and dorsal and ventral prefrontal areas near the principal sulcus. Four monkeys were used with a total of 498 cells studied. Of the total population, only five cells were found to have characteristics similar to those of auditory units in the primary auditory cortex and the surrounding belt area. More typically, units were found that had strong short-latency responses specific to the auditory and/or visual localization tasks. These units had no or weak responses when the same sound stimuli were presented in the auditory detect task or when a monkey received the sound stimuli in a nonperforming condition. Two regions were identified, one medial and/or posterior to the arcuate sulcus, in Brodmann's area 6; the second included parts of areas 8 and 9 within the genu of the arcuate sulcus. Units from these regions are referred to, respectively, as the postarcuate and the prearcuate populations. Both populations responded predominantly during active localization behavior. Sixty-two percent of the postarcuate population responded during auditory localization, 32% responded during auditory detect, and only 18% responded to acoustic stimuli presented in the nonperforming condition. In the prearcuate population percentages in these three conditions were 35, 25, and 12%, respectively. For visual localization, 54% in the postarcuate population responded, whereas 42% in the prearcuate responded. Spatial tuning of units during auditory localization was similar to that seen in units of the primary auditory cortex, with the greatest percentages of units responding to stimuli contralateral to the recording site. Similar tuning was observed for the visual localization task as well. Similarities in spatial tuning between the auditory and visual localization conditions were examined to assess the "bimodal" nature of the units.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

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