Human Factors Assessment of Pavement Marking Retroreflectivity in Simulated Rain and Dry Conditions

2021 ◽  
pp. 036119812110111
Author(s):  
Timothy P. Barrette ◽  
Adam M. Pike
Keyword(s):  
Human Factors ◽  
Subjective Rating ◽  
Detection Distance ◽  
Pavement Markings ◽  
Dry Conditions ◽  
Simulated Rain ◽  
Pavement Marking ◽  
Over Time

Pavement marking retroreflectivity standards are typically developed with dry conditions in mind, however, driving at night during rainfall is seemingly one of the most challenging and stressful situations for a driver. Furthermore, existing research indicates continuous wet retroreflectivity is relatively weakly correlated with dry retroreflectivity and deteriorates differently over time, leading to the obvious conclusion that dry retroreflectivity standards alone are not enough to ensure that pavement markings meet the needs of drivers across the breadth of roadway conditions that may occur. Consequently, developing standards for minimum continuous wet retroreflectivity for new installations and for maintenance purposes represents an important area for research. This study aims to develop new installation and maintenance values for continuous wet retroreflectivity based on a multifaceted, closed-course study of detectability of pavement markings in simulated rain and dry conditions. A series of 20 pavement marking samples was evaluated in relation to detection distance and subjective rating. The results of the study indicated that pavement markings need to be maintained at a continuous wet retroreflectivity value of 50 mcd/m2/lux based on a participant pool that skewed older in age, but that likely represents something close to the 85th-percentile driver. Additional salient findings included observed wet retroreflectivity loss in the existing literature of approximately 7% per month, as well as the maximum preview time in simulated rain conditions being substantially lower than in dry conditions.

Assessment of Durability of Wet Night Visible Pavement Markings

2013 ◽  
Vol 2337 (1) ◽  
pp. 67-73 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ronald B. Gibbons ◽  
Brian Williams ◽  
Benjamin Cottrell
Keyword(s):  
Human Factors ◽  
Research Effort ◽  
Detection Distance ◽  
Separate Paper ◽  
Pavement Markings ◽  
Diminishing Returns ◽  
Pavement Marking ◽  
Relationship Of ◽  
The Relationship

This paper describes the visibility experiment conducted as part of a research effort to establish the durability of pavement markings in an on-road installation. Six marking technologies were installed on a portion of Route 460 in Blacksburg, Virginia. A human factors experiment in natural rain conditions was performed to establish the visibility needs of the driver. The retroreflectivity of the markings was measured at intervals of 2 to 5 months, with six measurements over the course of 23 months (these data are discussed in a separate paper). Previous research suggested that a minimum retroreflectivity of 150 mcd/m2/lx should be maintained to meet drivers' visibility needs. As part of this research, a human factors experiment was conducted to test the validity of this recommendation. The distance at which participants could detect the end of a pavement marking was measured as well as the retroreflectivity of the marking at those points. The relationship of detection distance and retroreflectivity found in this study suggests that as retroreflectivity increases beyond 150 mcd/m2/lx, there are diminishing returns on detection distance. This finding suggests that the recommended minimum is appropriate for providing increased visibility for drivers, while keeping retroreflectivity requirements at a reasonable level for marking manufacturers.

scholarly journals Wet Night Visibility of Pavement Markings

2005 ◽  
Vol 1911 (1) ◽  
pp. 113-122
Author(s):  
Ronald B. Gibbons ◽  
Carl Andersen ◽  
Jonathan Hankey
Keyword(s):  
Test Methods ◽  
Pavement Markings ◽  
Visibility Distance ◽  
Dry Conditions ◽  
Simulated Rain ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Time Required ◽  
Pavement Marking ◽  
High Degree ◽  
System Operating

Thirty-three participants, all 60 years of age and older, evaluated the visibility of six different pavement marking materials under a simulated rain system operating at 0.8 in. (20 mm) of rain per h at night. Evaluation consisted of counting the number of skip lines visible from both a sedan and truck tractor, under headlight illumination only. Participants also evaluated markings from the sedan under dry conditions at night. Visual observations were compared with measured retroreflectivity of pavement marking materials, measured luminance of pavement marking materials at 30 m, and calculated retroreflectivity at 30 m, on the basis of measured luminance and illuminance provided by vehicle headlights. Data showed a high degree of correlation between the visibility distance of a marking material and the log of both the measured retroreflectivity and the calculated retroreflectivity. A definitive level of retroreflectivity required to meet drivers’ needs in wet night conditions was not found in the investigation and is now the subject of further study. There was also a high degree of correlation between measured and calculated values of retroreflectivity under simulated rain and measurements with the use of two current ASTM test methods, E2176 and E2177. In a second experiment, six original participants evaluated the visibility of the pavement marking materials for a 10-min interval following cessation of simulated rain. Results of the second experiment indicated significant differences in the time required for the visual performance of a pavement marking material to recover from rain for paint and bead products versus that of other pavement marking materials under evaluation.

Nighttime Visibility and Retroreflectance of Pavement Markings in Dry, Wet, and Rainy Conditions

2003 ◽  
Vol 1824 (1) ◽  
pp. 144-155 ◽  
Author(s):  
Thomas Schnell ◽  
Fuat Aktan ◽  
Yi-Ching Lee
Keyword(s):  
Weather Condition ◽  
Weather Conditions ◽  
Test Method ◽  
Detection Distance ◽  
Test Track ◽  
Pavement Markings ◽  
Wet Condition ◽  
Simulated Rain ◽  
Pavement Marking ◽  
Measures Of Effectiveness

Research was conducted to determine the nighttime visibility of flat pavement-marking tape, patterned pavement-marking tape, and wetweather pavement-marking tape in dry, wet (just after rainfall), and simulated rain conditions (ongoing 1-in./h rainfall). The measures of effectiveness were the detection distances, the eye-fixation distributions, and the pavement-marking retroreflectance. The research was sponsored by FHWA. The experiment was conducted on a test track in Cottage Grove, Minnesota. This test track had a section at which 1-in./h rainfall could be simulated. Eleven women and seven men, ranging in age from 55 to 74 (average age 62.5), participated in this study. The participants drove the experiment vehicles along the pavement-marking treatments. The participants were to state the earliest point at which they could see the end of the pavement markings. The retroreflectance of each pavement-marking material was measured with three handheld retroreflectometers under the three weather conditions according to ASTM E-1710 (dry), ASTM E-2177 (wet recovery), and ASTM E-2176 (continuous wetting). The retroreflectance values were correlated to the detection distances to determine the ability of each ASTM test method to predict visibility performance under the corresponding weather condition. The wet-weather tape performed best for detection distance, followed by the patterned tape and the flat tape. The detection distances were longest in the dry condition, shorter in the wet condition, and shortest in the simulated rain condition.

Closed-Course Human Factors Evaluation of Marking and Marker Visibility

2019 ◽  
Vol 2673 (10) ◽  
pp. 840-849
Author(s):  
Timothy P. Barrette ◽  
Adam M. Pike
Keyword(s):  
Pavement Markings ◽  
Passenger Seat ◽  
Driver Performance ◽  
Dry Conditions ◽  
The Right ◽  
Pavement Marking ◽  
Study Participants ◽  
Treatment Adequacy ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
Light Precipitation

Raised retroreflective pavement markers (RRPMs) are commonly used to provide nighttime delineation of roadways. Although RRPMs are visible during dry conditions, they provide their greatest benefit during wet-night conditions, when typical pavement markings become flooded and lose their retroreflectivite properties. Naturally, the retroreflectivity of RRPMs degrades over time as a result of traffic, ultraviolet light, precipitation, and roadway maintenance activities. Subsequently, it is necessary to examine the relationship between driver performance and the condition of the RRPMs. To assess visibility relative to RRPM condition, study participants rode in the passenger seat of a vehicle operated by a member of the research team, traveling at approximately 15 mph, for two laps around a closed course. Throughout each lap of the course, nine treatments consisting of RRPMs or preformed pavement marking tape of various retroreflectivity levels diverged from a center line to either the right or left. Participants indicated when they could tell which direction the treatment diverged, which was recorded using a GPS unit. A generalized linear model was estimated on a dataset constructed by pairing the observed distances from various treatments with demographic information about each participant. The analysis indicates the distance at which a particular treatment would be visible, which can then be converted to preview time to assess treatment adequacy for a variety of speeds. The RRPM treatments generally provided adequate preview time for older drivers based on the extant literature; however, the preformed pavement marking tape was less adequate at higher speeds and under overhead lighting.

Visibility of New Dashed Yellow and White Center Stripes as Function of Material Retroreflectivity

1996 ◽  
Vol 1553 (1) ◽  
pp. 73-80 ◽  
Author(s):  
Helmut T. Zwahlen ◽  
Thomas Schnell
Keyword(s):  
Finite Length ◽  
Environmental Concerns ◽  
Vehicle Speed ◽  
Detection Distance ◽  
Left Edge ◽  
Pavement Markings ◽  
Industry Standards ◽  
Visibility Distance ◽  
Continued Use ◽  
Pavement Marking

Economic and environmental concerns have raised questions about the continued use of yellow center lines on two-lane highways and yellow left-edge lines on divided highways or freeway entrance and exit ramps. The use of yellow pavement markings as a warning to indicate opposing traffic appears to be a concept that is compatible with certain human factors population stereotypes and accepted industry standards (yellow for caution), but it is unclear how well the general driver population understands the message conveyed by yellow pavement markings. Another question is how the visibility of yellow center lines or left-edge lines compares with the visibility of similar white pavement markings. The effects of color (white and yellow) and material retroreflectivity (low, medium, and high) on the end detection distance of finite-length center lines at night under automobile low-beam illumination were determined. Ten subjects were used in a field experiment (rural, automobile low-beam conditions) to obtain the end detection distances of finite-length center stripes of 0.1-m width. The data show that the end detection distances of new yellow dashed center stripes and new white dashed center stripes are about the same. The average end detection distance was 30 to 35 m for the low-retroreflectivity material and about 62 m for the high-retroreflectivity material (four- to fivefold retroreflectivity increase). It is tentatively concluded that the use of white center stripes most likely will not result in a significant increase in the end detection distance when compared with the use of similar yellow center stripes. It is also tentatively concluded that an increase in the retroreflectivity of the pavement marking materials will result in a significant and desirable increase of the visibility distance, but to provide a minimum preview time of 3.6 sec (at a vehicle speed of 90 km/hr), even higher-retroreflectivity materials than the ones used in this study will be required.

Visibility of New Centerline and Edge Line Pavement Markings

1997 ◽  
Vol 1605 (1) ◽  
pp. 49-61 ◽  
Author(s):  
Helmut T. Zwahlen ◽  
Thomas Schnell
Keyword(s):  
Ohio University ◽  
Detection Distance ◽  
Pavement Markings ◽  
Upper Limit ◽  
Distance Data ◽  
Left And Right ◽  
Pavement Marking ◽  
Main Effects ◽  
Road Marking

The objective of the presented two-part study was to provide nighttime pavement-marking visibility data obtained under automobile low-beam illumination conditions in the field for further calibration of the Ohio University pavement-marking visibility model CARVE (Computer Aided Road Marking Visibility Evaluator). A total of 10 subjects participated in Part 1 of the study. The goal of Part 1 was to determine the end-detection distance of finite-length, new, medium-retroreflectivity, yellow pavement marking tape centerlines without edge lines as a function of the centerline configuration (single dashed, single solid, and double solid) and width. The results of Part 1 confirm that an increase in the average end-detection distance of about 55 percent represents the approximate upper limit of what can be achieved by adding more retro-reflective area to a yellow centerline. Part 2 consisted of four main experiments involving 10 subjects each and two follow-up experiments involving a total of 10 subjects. The goal of Part 2 was to provide pavement-marking end-detection distance data for fully marked roads consisting of left and right white edge lines with either a yellow double solid or single dashed centerline. The main effects of width, retroreflectvity, and centerline configuration were found to be statistically significant. A fully marked road consisting of both edge lines and a centerline generally appears to provide end-detection distances that are on average about twice as long as the end-detection distances that can be achieved with a centerline alone, without edge lines.

scholarly journals Using ADAS to Future-Proof Roads—Comparison of Fog Line Detection from an In-Vehicle Camera and Mobile Retroreflectometer

Sensors ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 21 (5) ◽  
pp. 1737
Author(s):  
Ane Dalsnes Storsæter ◽  
Kelly Pitera ◽  
Edward McCormack
Keyword(s):  
Warning System ◽  
Management Systems ◽  
Warning Systems ◽  
Lane Departure Warning ◽  
Automated Driving ◽  
Pavement Markings ◽  
Lighting Conditions ◽  
Lane Marking ◽  
Lane Departure ◽  
Pavement Marking

Pavement markings are used to convey positioning information to both humans and automated driving systems. As automated driving is increasingly being adopted to support safety, it is important to understand how successfully sensor systems can interpret these markings. In this effort, an in-vehicle lane departure warning system was compared to data collected simultaneously from an externally mounted mobile retroreflectometer. The test, performed over 200 km of driving on three different routes in variable lighting conditions and road classes found that, depending on conditions, the retroreflectometer could predict whether the car’s lane departure systems would detect markings in 92% to 98% of cases. The test demonstrated that automated driving systems can be used to monitor the state of pavement markings and can provide input on how to design and maintain road infrastructure to support automated driving features. Since data about the condition of lane marking from multiple lane departure warning systems (crowd-sourced data) can provide input into the pavement marking management systems operated by many road owners, these findings also indicate that these automated driving sensors have an important role in enhancing the maintenance of pavement markings.

scholarly journals Developing Pavement Marking Management Systems: A Theoretical Model Framework Based on the Experiences of the US Transportation Agencies

2021 ◽  
Vol 6 (2) ◽  
pp. 18
Author(s):  
Alireza Sassani ◽  
Omar Smadi ◽  
Neal Hawkins
Keyword(s):  
Asset Management ◽  
Management Practices ◽  
Relevant Literature ◽  
Building Blocks ◽  
Management Systems ◽  
Model Framework ◽  
Pavement Markings ◽  
The Us ◽  
Pavement Marking ◽  
Transportation Agencies

Pavement markings are essential elements of transportation infrastructure with critical impacts on safety and mobility. They provide road users with the necessary information to adjust driving behavior or make calculated decisions about commuting. The visibility of pavement markings for drivers can be the boundary between a safe trip and a disastrous accident. Consequently, transportation agencies at the local or national levels allocate sizeable budgets to upkeep the pavement markings under their jurisdiction. Infrastructure asset management systems (IAMS) are often biased toward high-capital-cost assets such as pavements and bridges, not providing structured asset management (AM) plans for low-cost assets such as pavement markings. However, recent advances in transportation asset management (TAM) have promoted an integrated approach involving the pavement marking management system (PMMS). A PMMS brings all data items and processes under a comprehensive AM plan and enables managing pavement markings more efficiently. Pavement marking operations depend on location, conditions, and AM policies, highly diversifying the pavement marking management practices among agencies and making it difficult to create a holistic image of the system. Most of the available resources for pavement marking management focus on practices instead of strategies. Therefore, there is a lack of comprehensive guidelines and model frameworks for developing PMMS. This study utilizes the existing body of knowledge to build a guideline for developing and implementing PMMS. First, by adapting the core AM concepts to pavement marking management, a model framework for PMMS is created, and the building blocks and elements of the framework are introduced. Then, the caveats and practical points in PMMS implementation are discussed based on the US transportation agencies’ experiences and the relevant literature. This guideline is aspired to facilitate PMMS development for the agencies and pave the way for future pavement marking management tools and databases.

Development and Implementation of a Pavement Marking Management System in Florida

2018 ◽  
Vol 2672 (12) ◽  
pp. 209-219
Author(s):  
Bouzid Choubane ◽  
Joshua Sevearance ◽  
Charles Holzschuher ◽  
James Fletcher ◽  
Chieh (Ross) Wang
Keyword(s):  
Management System ◽  
Handheld Devices ◽  
Department Of Transportation ◽  
Pavement Markings ◽  
Lighting Conditions ◽  
Florida Department ◽  
Roadway Safety ◽  
Application Techniques ◽  
Effective Use ◽  
Pavement Marking

The visibility of pavement markings is an important aspect of a safe transportation system as the markings convey vital roadway warnings and guidance information to the traveling public. Therefore, it is beneficial to maintain acceptable visibility levels of markings on pavements under all weather and lighting conditions. To ensure the intended in-service visibility level is adequately maintained, the reflectivity must be monitored and quantified accordingly. Historically, visibility or retroreflectivity of in-service pavement markings has been measured with handheld devices and visual inspections. However, visual surveys are considered subjective and the handheld measurements are tedious and potentially hazardous. Consequently, the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) has focused on the use of a non-contact technology capable of assessing pavement markings continuously at highway speeds with improved safety and efficiency. The use of mobile technology for measuring reflectivity has allowed FDOT to develop and, subsequently, implement a Pavement Marking Management System (PMMS) to improve the safety and nighttime visibility of its roadways. Implementation of such a system provides an efficient and less subjective methodology to identify conditions that are detrimental to roadway safety, and strategize mitigating solutions including the selection of appropriate materials and application techniques. The system will ultimately result in an effective use of state funds while ensuring the safety of the traveling public. This paper presents a description of the Florida Pavement Markings Management System and its subsequent implementation including FDOT’s effort to ensure the quality, consistency, repeatability, and accessibility of statewide pavement marking retroreflectivity data.

Investigations of the chemical control of insect pests of cotton in central Africa. II.—Tests of insecticides with larvae and adults

1966 ◽  
Vol 57 (1) ◽  
pp. 77-91 ◽  
Author(s):  
G. A. Matthews
Keyword(s):  
Chemical Control ◽  
Laboratory Tests ◽  
Insect Pests ◽  
Central Africa ◽  
Heliothis Armigera ◽  
First Instar ◽  
Dry Conditions ◽  
Simulated Rain ◽  
Plant Habit ◽  
Dysdercus Intermedius

Further tests of insecticides, mainly carbaryl, endosulfan, endrin and DDT, for possible use against pests of cotton in Central Africa are described. In laboratory tests in Rhodesia, carbaryl was the most effective against first-instar larvae of Diparopsis castanea Hmps. exposed on leaves, stems and bracts of effective against second-instar larvae of Heliothis armigera (Hb.), to which the insecticides were applied directly, and carbaryl the least.When adults of Dysdercus intermedius Dist. and D. fasciatus Sign. were caged with treated bolls, carbaryl was the most effective, endrin the next and (against the former sp. only) endosulfan the least. Deposits on leaves from 0.5 per cent. sprays of carbaryl, DDT and endosulfan remained effective in dry conditions for two weeks, but application of 0.05–1.0 in of simulated rain reduced their effectiveness immediately, especially that of carbaryl. The effectiveness of deposits was also reduced by plant growth and was affected by plant habit; on a hairy variety the deposits persisted longer than on a glabrous one, partly because the hairs retained them and partly because they made movement of the larvae more difficult.

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