A Theory of Conduct

1917 ◽  
Vol 63 (263) ◽  
pp. 565-568
Author(s):  
Alan McDougall

In the beginning every creature was a patriarch: it was, philosophically, not only its individual self, but also all its potential progeny. Such a creature's whole conduct was directed towards the one goal of eternal life on earth. It so happened that in very many cases the creature's best chance of success involved association with other creatures of its kind, or even of other kinds. From this arose the complication of the acquirement of tribal instincts. Tribal instincts were acquired only for patriarchal purposes, though in very many cases they proved to be the immediate cause of the creature's death. A further complication arose when certain of the creatures acquired intellect and took to thinking. Philosophically, a living thing exists only that it may produce a generation capable of producing yet another generation. A generation is important only as the cause of its next generation. Intellect often gave the creature an immediate advantage over rivals, but it glorified the individual self at the expense of the patriarchal self. This is recognised in the third chapter of Genesis, where intellect is called the serpent, and thinking is called (in Chapter II) the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. The statement that “in the day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die” declares that the race is kept going only by those who do not understand how to limit their families.

2021 ◽  
Vol 88 (3) ◽  
pp. 401-428
Author(s):  
Yaşar Tolga Cora

This article examines the different ways in which masculinity and ethnicity were mu- tually constructed during the Great War and the Armenian Genocide by analyzing the memoirs of Armenak Melikyan, an Armenian cavalry officer in the Ottoman Army. It discusses why Melikyan emphasized in his memoirs certain values, such as dutiful- ness, resourcefulness, and hard work, which were all firmly associated with the he- gemonic masculine model of citizen-soldiers in the late Ottoman Empire. The article further examines the emphasis Melikyan laid on the public recognition he received for his qualities as an officer from Muslim/Turkish superiors, thus reflecting both ethnic and gendered hierarchies in the army. The article argues that many Armenian soldiers in the Ottoman army performed according to hegemonic masculine models in order to defend their precarious masculinity against physical and psychological challenges. This allowed them to remasculinize themselves in the context of the Great War and the Genocide. The article contributes to the study of military memoirs in the late Ottoman Empire by underlining the relation between social and cultural norms and expecta- tions on the one hand and the individual self-perception of military experiences on the other, in the context of the war and ethnic violence.


2018 ◽  
Vol 69 (11) ◽  
pp. 3275-3279
Author(s):  
Gheorghe Raftu ◽  
Aurel Nechita ◽  
Cristian Constantin Budacu ◽  
Anca Porumb ◽  
Luana Andreea Macovei

Praxia represents the totality of the gestures and movements necessary to perform complex voluntary actions in order to accomplish a goal. Praxia has two aspects: on the one hand, intentional activity and on the other hand a mnestic activity based on memorizing the succession over time and space of the various movements to be performed in order to accomplish the intentional action. Programming the fulfillment of a voluntary action in order to achieve a well-defined purpose proceeds gradually, at different successive levels. The first level is the conceptual one. The person aims to achieve a certain purpose, sets the purpose of the voluntary motor action. The second level is that of the kinetic formulation of action, gesture. The individual disintegrates from the mnesic stock of all kinetic formulas he has learned during his ontogenetic development those formulas that are most appropriate to achieve the proposed action. The third level includes central and peripheral motor innervation, pyramidal, extrapyramidal, cerebellar and medullary motoring ways, which are the peripheral performers of the voluntary action. At this level the harmonious interactions between the different muscles involved in the movements are established, as well as the harmonious innervation of the synergic muscles, fixators, agonists and antagonists. The study comprises 5 patients admitted in the clinic of psychiatry in Constan�a, who presented oro-facial-lingual apraxia, apraxic dysphasia and aphasia, appeared in various evolutionary phases of intracranial neoformative processes. Apraxia was due to the increase of the kinetic engraving threshold, to the laughter they are sequenced by the logic of gesture efficiency; the often repeated, deeply fixed, kinetic engraves are automated in time.The co-ordination needed to perform a gestional motor task in order to accomplish a determined action has significant psychological implications.


2005 ◽  
Vol 24 (2) ◽  
pp. 331-361 ◽  
Author(s):  
Brendon Reay

Abstract This article investigates the interplay of agriculture and writing in the elder Cato's aristocratic self-fashioning (both his individual self-representation, that is, and his construction of aristocracy more broadly). I argue that the De Agricultura represents Cato and his contemporaries as individual, small-plot farmers by making explicit the agricultural inflection of a more general masterly extensibility, i.e., that slaves were prosthetic tools with which owners accomplished various tasks, a move that in turn reveals the ubiquitous, assiduous ““labor”” of the individual owner. The preface's valorization of small-plot farmers, past and present, contextualizes the owner's ““labor”” both culturally and historically (the one by means of the other), and thereby seeks to bridge the agricultural and temporal divide that separates Cato and his contemporaries from their esteemed predecessors.


Author(s):  
Edward Fullbrook

Many economists, including heterodox ones, seem unaware of the hold on and significance of the orthodox notion of economics as a ‘science’ of individual choice, the individual being conceived atomisticly. It is this idea—which pervades the economist’s mindset—that economics is the ‘science’ of the choices of isolated individuals with fixed and quantified preferences that, on the one hand, enables economics to proceed in a formalistic manner and, on the other, justifies its ignoring economic phenomena that do not fit its methodology and this narrow agenda. This chapter proposes a diagnosis and an antidote.


2020 ◽  
pp. 68-80
Author(s):  
Alexandre Matheron

In this chapter, Matheron presents some brief thoughts on Proposition 39 of Part V of the Ethics, which states that a body capable of many things has a mind whose greater part is eternal. The key to unlocking this seemingly unusual claim is to understand what happens in the body when the mind understands. This leads Matheron to reconstruct the demonstrations that accompany the preceding propositions in Part V as well as to a discussion of adequate and inadequate ideas in Spinoza. Though we might not be immediately aware of it, to have an adequate idea of something external us is to have the adequate idea of a certain order that is established between affections in our body whose structure matches the one that inheres in the thing in question. This leads Matheron to a discussion of the ‘third kind of knowledge’ and its relation to the Spinozist concept of eternity, all of which clarify the initial starting point: the acquisition of new and more adequate knowledge always entails a clearer understanding of our body’s capacities that are already included in the eternal idea that we are.


Author(s):  
Luiz Mattos

Trata-se de estudo de natureza empírica, com inspiração etnográfica e que tencionou analisar as trajetórias de nove explicadoras, ou melhor, professoras que lecionavam nas suas próprias residências, em locais como salas de jantar, varandas e quintais, para turmas multisseriadas compostas por alunos que estudavam, na sua maioria, da classe de alfabetização à oitava série. Três questões nucleares compuseram o eixo central investigativo do estudo: a) O que eram as explicadoras? b) Como se deram seus processos de socialização na direção do magistério e, posteriormente, do magistério doméstico? e b) Como atuavam nos seus espaços de trabalho? Procedeu-se no início do estudo a uma revisão dos trabalhos do campo da História da Profissão Docente, com o intuito de situá-lo como tal e, por conseguinte, defini-lo como um estudo de um tipo de exercício da docência. Em seguida, a pesquisa apresentou, com riqueza de detalhes, os principais dados colhidos no decorrer das entrevistas exploratórias, das observações participantes e das entrevistas semi-estruturadas – todos esses, instrumentos metodológicos acionados na condução do trabalho de campo. Os processos de socialização das nove professoras, inicialmente na direção do magistério e, posteriormente, na direção do trabalho como explicadoras, foram analisados à luz dos conceitos de habitus e estratégia elaborados por Pierre Bourdieu e interpretados na pesquisa por Nogueira, Lelis e Perrenoud. Os resultados sugerem que, dentro das condições materiais de existência das nove explicadoras, o magistério se configurou como saída possível para suas aspirações profissionais, enquanto que o ofício de explicadora reunia, para elas, condições práticas ideais, uma vez que garantia proventos mensais sem nenhum tipo de desconto e, principalmente, a possibilidade de exercer um ofício podendo administrar o lar e acompanhar de perto os filhos. Com relação à terceira questão da pesquisa, sete eixos temáticos foram forjados a partir da potência dos dados oriundos da empiria. Foram eles: as estratégias didáticas utilizadas pelas explicadoras; as rotinas criadas por elas para darem conta das demandas diárias dos alunos; os recursos por elas acionados para conseguirem atender as variadas solicitações oriundas da pluralidade de seus atendimentos; as relações travadas por elas com as famílias, escolas e alunos; a visão que cada uma delas tinha sobre escola, família e aluno; as diferenças que marcavam o êxito de suas intervenções junto aos alunos se comparadas às escolas e, por último, os sonhos e desejos alimentados por todas elas como mulheres e professoras – todos apontando para o perfil de uma modalidade de exercício da docência e para a singularidade de experiências vividas a partir das histórias individuais de nove mulheres. Cabe ressaltar que o estudo teve condições de detectar um certo esgotamento das possibilidades das famílias em acompanharem a demanda de tarefas propostas pelas escolas para os alunos. Palavras-chave: história da profissão docente, práticas docentes, magistério, docência, tipos de exercício da docência, modos de atuação no magistério, explicadoras. Abstract The study is of an empirical nature, with ethnographic inspiration and it intended to analyze the trajectories of nine "explicators", better saying, teachers who teach in their own residences, in dining rooms, balconies and yards, for classes with students from pre-school to primary school. Three core questions composed the central axis of the study: a) who were the "explicators"? b) how were their processes of socialization in teaching and, later, in home teaching? and c) how they acted in their work environment? In the beginning of the study, one made a revision of the works in the History of Teaching, with the intention to point it out as such and, therefore, define it as a study of a kind of teaching. After that, the research presented, rich in details, the main data gathered from the interviews, from the observations and from the half-structuralized interviews – all these, methodological instruments concerning fieldwork. The processes of socialization of the nine teachers, initially in the school direction, and, later, in the direction of the work as explicators, were analyzed in the light of the concepts of habitus and strategy elaborated by Pierre Bourdieu and interpreted in the research by Nogueira, Lelis and Perrenoud. The results suggest that, within the material conditions of the nine explicators, teaching was a viable path for their professional aspirations, while being an explicator meant, for them, the ideal practical conditions, since they could earn money without tax discounting and, mainly, the possibility to work and to be able to manage their homes and to take care of their children. In relation to the third question of the research, seven thematic axes were forged from the deriving data from the empirics. They are the following: the didactic strategies used by the explicators; the routines created for them to manage the daily demands of the students; the resources set for them in order to take care of the requests deriving from the plurality of their teaching; their relationship with the families, schools and students; the vision that each one of them had about school, family and student; the differences that marked the success of their interventions together with the students when compared to the schools and, finally, their dreams and desires as women and teachers – all pointing to the profile of teaching and to the singularity of experiences lived by the individual histories of nine women. One should point out that the study was in condition to detect a certain exhaustion of the possibilities concerning the fact that the families could not follow the demand of tasks proposed for the students by the schools. Keywords: history of teaching, teachers' practices, teaching, ways of teaching, explicators.


1909 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-27
Author(s):  
William H. Ryder

No other doctrine of Christian theology has been regarded as more important than the doctrine that Jesus Christ rose from the dead. It has often been affirmed that upon this doctrine the church was founded; that it is the one great fact which binds together the life of Jesus in the flesh and his eternal life at the right hand of God; which confirms his teaching and his high claims; which gives to men the right to love and worship him with a supreme devotion, to believe in his continued ministration to his people, to anticipate his return to perfect and govern his kingdom in the earth, and to rest in the assurance of their own immortal life with him. It is not strange, therefore, that in the flux of modern thought many should turn their attention to this significant doctrine. It is, moreover, not only an important article of the Christian faith, but it is also one in the support and interpretation of which various lines of investigation are involved. It is, first of all, a historical question, which demands a careful examination of witnesses and testing of evidence; it has come to be, of late at least, a psychological question, demanding careful analysis of the state of mind of the early witnesses, the accumulation and comparison of other cases in which men and women have believed that they saw the forms and heard the voices of the departed. The hypotheses suggested by the experiments of psychical research have been thought by some to throw at least a dim and uncertain light upon this doctrine; and, further, the question whether there is a vital and necessary connection between a firm conviction of the bodily resurrection of Jesus and a confident and aggressive Christian faith has come to seem to some an open question, demanding careful and discriminating examination. It is not surprising, therefore, that the literature upon this subject should have much increased during the last fifteen or twenty years, nor that the methods of discussion and the conclusions reached by able and sincere men should differ widely. It is the purpose of this article to give some account of these recent discussions, without attempting to review or criticise in detail the individual books and monographs and the articles in various English and German periodicals which have been published in such large numbers.


Thesis Eleven ◽  
2021 ◽  
pp. 072551362110331
Author(s):  
Olmo Gölz

The heroic figure is a human fiction of the wholly singular. In the hero, discourses about ideals and exemplariness, extra-ordinariness and exceptionalness, agonality, transgressivity, or good and evil become condensed into a single individual. Thus, the hero is the opposite of the masses. As it is argued in this article, the answer to the question of what distinguishes a hero lies in the supererogatory moment, the reference to the hero’s quality of more than can be expected: the heroic figure does more than he or she has to, more than duty requires of an ordinary person, and this is the reason they are heroized. However, this also points to a dialectic moment of the heroic in which the opposition between the hero and the many seems to be suspended. Following Niklas Luhmann, the hero represents the paradox of conformity through deviance, because through the example of their abnormality they produce in others a desire to imitate them. In the end, there is a collective appeal of the heroic that affects even the conceptual complement of the hero: the crowd which is characterized by the disappearance of the individual within it. Inspired by Luhmann’s sociological reflections on the heroic as well as Elias Canetti’s anthropological perspectives on the phenomena of the crowd, this article traces the rhetoric of the hero along its path from the singular to the plural. Against the backdrop of the analysis of the heroic in revolutionary Iran, a generalizable typology is proposed that distinguishes between the hero, the collective of heroes, the heroic collective, and collective heroism. This order reflects a progression that is analogous to the conjunction of the one and the many, moving qualitatively from the distinct figure of the hero to the indistinguishable masses.


2020 ◽  
pp. 135-148
Author(s):  
Kristína Hoghová

The concept of regional identity encompasses a number of fields, elements and subjects that create it. There are many definitions in the current scientific literature characterizing this topic. We encounter a large number of definitions, mainly in foreign studies. Under the conditions of the Slovak Republic, this field is much less explored. On the one hand, the individual self-governing regional units strive to maintain their uniqueness and preserve their historical and cultural values, economic or social status. On the other hand, they implement regional identity in their Social and Economic Development Programs minimally. It is the citizens themselves, visitors, investors, public and private subjects, central government and many other factors that shape the region's identity in Slovakia. The Regional Identity Index (IRI) is an effective tool for measuring regional identity in each self-governing region. Thus, it determines the overall level achieved in a certain period and can lead to useful information about the functioning and future direction of the territory. However, the calculation of IRI in the conditions of Slovak self-governing regions is significantly absent. Based on the research problem, the main aim of this paper is to propose an IRI for self-governing regions in the conditions of the Slovak Republic. The calculation will be formulated through quantitative data and factors, predefined and implemented schemes in practice. Príspevok poukazuje na skutočnosť, že systematický každoročný výpočet indikátorov môže byť nie len pre samosprávne kraje, ale aj miestne samosprávy (obce a mestá) smerodajným pri vypracovaní strategických dokumentov v oblasti územného rozvoja, prijímaním miestnych politík či budovaním marketingovej stratégie územia, čím by sa zvyšovala konkurencieschopnosť a regionálny rozvoj vo všetkých úrovniach územnej samosprávy. The paper points out that the systematic annual calculation of indicators can be decisive not only for the self-governing units, but also for local self-governments (municipalities) in the preparation of strategic documents in the fields of spatial development, adopting local policies or building the marketing strategy of the territory. This would increase competitiveness and regional development at all levels of territorial self-government.


2021 ◽  
Vol 5 (4) ◽  
pp. 1-73
Author(s):  
Rachel Calipha ◽  
Benjamin Gidron

Abstract The expansion and development of the nonprofit sector worldwide in the 1980s and 1990s did not bypass Israel, and, as in other countries, sparked an interest for study to uncover its characteristics and major features. The Israeli population—both Jewish and Arab—has a rich tradition of voluntaristic activity on the individual as well as on the collective (organizational) levels, mostly in the communal context. The modern welfare state created new opportunities and new challenges for such activity within the broad framework of the nonprofit sector. This article aims to review the development of the nonprofit sector in Israel and analyze it within existing nonprofit theories. It takes a historical perspective in looking at its evolution, in light of political, social, ideological, and economic changes in the world and in the country. It discusses the development of policy and government involvement on the one hand and the unique features of Israeli philanthropy, both Jewish and Arab, on the other. It analyzes Israel’s civil society and social movements, as well as social entrepreneurship and their expression in the Third Sector. The article also covers the development of research and education on the Third Sector; it includes a review of research centers, databases, journals, and specific programs that were developed by Israeli universities. Finally, this article summarizes the characteristics of the nonprofit sector in Israel.


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