Drink a Toast to Tap Water: Study Suggests Water Consumption Benefit Outweighs THM Hazard

Abstract Objective As tap water distrust has grown in the US with greater levels among Black and Hispanic households, we aimed to examine recent trends in not drinking tap water including the period covering the US Flint Water Crisis and racial/ethnic disparities in these trends. Design Cross-sectional analysis. We used log-binomial regressions and marginal predicted probabilities examined US nationally-representative trends in tap and bottled water consumption overall and by race/ethnicity. Setting The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data, 2011–2018. Participants Nationally-representative sample of 9,439 children aged 2-19 and 17,268 adults. Results Among US children and adults, respectively, in 2017-2018 there was a 63% (adjusted prevalence ratio [PR]:1.63, 95%CI: 1.25-2.12, p<0.001) and 40% (PR:1.40, 95%CI: 1.16-1.69, p=0.001) higher prevalence of not drinking tap water compared to 2013-2014 (pre-Flint Water Crisis). For Black children and adults, the probability of not drinking tap water increased significantly from 18.1% (95%CI: 13.4-22.8) and 24.6% (95%CI: 20.7-28.4) in 2013–14 to 29.3% (95%CI: 23.5-35.1) and 34.5% (95%CI: 29.4-39.6) in 2017–2018. Among Hispanic children and adults, not drinking tap water increased significantly from 24.5% (95%CI: 19.4-29.6) and 27.1% (95%CI: 23.0-31.2) in 2013-14 to 39.7% (95%CI: 32.7-46.8) and 38.1% (95%CI: 33.0-43.1) in 2017-2018. No significant increases were observed among Asian or white persons between 2013-14 and 2017-18. Similar trends were found in bottled water consumption. Conclusions This study found persistent disparities in the tap water consumption gap from 2011–2018. Black and Hispanics’ probability of not drinking tap water increased following the Flint Water Crisis.

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Disparities in plain, tap and bottled water consumption among US adults: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2007–2014

Public Health Nutrition ◽

10.1017/s1368980017004050 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 21 (8) ◽

pp. 1455-1464 ◽

Cited By ~ 25

Author(s):

Asher Y Rosinger ◽

Kirsten A Herrick ◽

Amber Y Wutich ◽

Jonathan S Yoder ◽

Cynthia L Ogden

Keyword(s):

National Health ◽

Water Consumption ◽

Tap Water ◽

Bottled Water ◽

Plain Water ◽

Nutrition Examination Survey ◽

Linear Regression Models ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Dietary Recall ◽

Health And Nutrition

AbstractObjectiveDifferences in bottled v. tap water intake may provide insights into health disparities, like risk of dental caries and inadequate hydration. We examined differences in plain, tap and bottled water consumption among US adults by sociodemographic characteristics.DesignCross-sectional analysis. We used 24 h dietary recall data to test differences in percentage consuming the water sources and mean intake between groups using Wald tests and multiple logistic and linear regression models.SettingNational Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 2007–2014.SubjectsA nationally representative sample of 20 676 adults aged ≥20 years.ResultsIn 2011–2014, 81·4 (se 0·6) % of adults drank plain water (sum of tap and bottled), 55·2 (se 1·4) % drank tap water and 33·4 (se 1·4) % drank bottled water on a given day. Adjusting for covariates, non-Hispanic (NH) Black and Hispanic adults had 0·44 (95 % CI 0·37, 0·53) and 0·55 (95 % CI 0·45, 0·66) times the odds of consuming tap water, and consumed B=−330 (se 45) ml and B=−180 (se 45) ml less tap water than NH White adults, respectively. NH Black, Hispanic and adults born outside the fifty US states or Washington, DC had 2·20 (95 % CI 1·79, 2·69), 2·37 (95 % CI 1·91, 2·94) and 1·46 (95 % CI 1·19, 1·79) times the odds of consuming bottled water than their NH White and US-born counterparts. In 2007–2010, water filtration was associated with higher odds of drinking plain and tap water.ConclusionsWhile most US adults consumed plain water, the source (i.e. tap or bottled) and amount differed by race/Hispanic origin, nativity status and education. Water filters may increase tap water consumption.

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Drinking water consumption patterns in Canadian communities (2001–2007)

Journal of Water and Health ◽

10.2166/wh.2011.051 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 10 (1) ◽

pp. 69-86 ◽

Cited By ~ 15

Author(s):

S. M. Roche ◽

A. Q. Jones ◽

S. E. Majowicz ◽

S. A. McEwen ◽

K. D. M. Pintar

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Water Consumption ◽

Tap Water ◽

Treatment Method ◽

Pooled Analysis ◽

Bottled Water ◽

Consumption Patterns ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Factors Associated ◽

Water Users

A pooled analysis of seven cross-sectional studies from Newfoundland and Labrador, Waterloo and Hamilton Regions, Ontario and Vancouver, East Kootenay and Northern Interior Regions, British Columbia (2001 to 2007) was performed to investigate the drinking water consumption patterns of Canadians and to identify factors associated with the volume of tap water consumed. The mean volume of tap water consumed was 1.2 L/day, with a large range (0.03 to 9.0 L/day). In-home water treatment and interactions between age and gender and age and bottled water use were significantly associated with the volume of tap water consumed in multivariable analyses. Approximately 25% (2,221/8,916) of participants were classified as bottled water users, meaning that 75% or more of their total daily drinking water intake was bottled. Approximately 48.6% (4,307/8,799) of participants used an in-home treatment method to treat their tap water for drinking purposes. This study provides a broader geographic perspective and more current estimates of Canadian water consumption patterns than previous studies. The identified factors associated with daily water consumption could be beneficial for risk assessors to identify individuals who may be at greater risk of waterborne illness.

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A community outbreak of Campylobacter jejuni infection from a chlorinated public water supply

Epidemiology and Infection ◽

10.1017/s0950268807007960 ◽

2007 ◽

Vol 135 (7) ◽

pp. 1151-1158 ◽

Cited By ~ 26

Author(s):

G. RICHARDSON ◽

D. Rh. THOMAS ◽

R. M. M. SMITH ◽

L. NEHAUL ◽

C. D. RIBEIRO ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Rural Communities ◽

Campylobacter Jejuni ◽

Water Consumption ◽

Tap Water ◽

Population Attributable Risk ◽

Public Water Supply ◽

South Wales ◽

Sporadic Cases ◽

Maintenance And Inspection

SUMMARYAn outbreak of Campylobacter jejuni infection occurred in a South Wales Valleys housing estate. Illness in estate residents was associated with tap water consumption [population attributable risk (PAR) 50%, relative risk (RR) 2·53, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1·9–3·37] and residence in the upper estate (PAR 49%, RR 2·44, 95% CI 1·83–3·24). Amongst upper estate residents, rates of diarrhoeal illness increased with rates of water consumption (OR 18, 95% CI 3·5–92·4 for heaviest consumers, χ2 trend P<0·0001). The upper estate received mains water via a covered holding reservoir. A crack in the wall of the holding reservoir was identified. Contamination with surface water from nearby pasture land was the likely cause of this outbreak. Service reservoirs are common in rural communities and need regular maintenance and inspection. The role of water in sporadic cases of campylobacter enteritis may be underestimated.

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Defensive spending on tap water substitutes: the value of reducing perceived health risks

Journal of Water and Health ◽

10.2166/wh.2011.097 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 10 (1) ◽

pp. 56-68 ◽

Cited By ~ 17

Author(s):

Diane P. Dupont ◽

Nowshin Jahan

Keyword(s):

Escherichia Coli ◽

Willingness To Pay ◽

Health Risks ◽

National Survey ◽

Water Consumption ◽

Tap Water ◽

Perceived Health ◽

Consumer Spending

We examine factors that explain consumer spending on tap water substitutes using information from a national survey undertaken with a representative set of Canadian respondents. We develop a model to predict the percentage of households that undertake such spending for the purpose of reducing perceived health risks from tap water consumption. Using results from the model we estimate the magnitude of defensive expenditures to be over half a billion dollars (2010 US$) per year for Canada, as a whole. This is equivalent to approximately $48 per household per year or about $19 per person per year. Residents of Ontario, the province in which an Escherichia coli incident took place in 2000, have the highest willingness-to-pay of approximately $60 per household per year.

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Comparative Quality Analysis between Tap Water and Bottled Water

ARO-The Scientific Journal of Koya University ◽

10.14500/aro.10870 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 9 (2) ◽

pp. 42-45

Author(s):

Hanaa A. Muhammad ◽

Khalid N. Sediq ◽

Kwestan H. Sdiq

Keyword(s):

Water Consumption ◽

Aluminum Content ◽

Tap Water ◽

Quality Standards ◽

Bottled Water ◽

Quality Analysis ◽

Plastic Pollution ◽

Titration Method ◽

Permissible Range

Recently, bottled water consumption has been increasing significantly, even when the quality of tap water is considered excellent, which contributes to plastic pollution. Besides, reducing the use of plastic generally is recommended world widely, as its consumption is in an alarming rate. Therefore, this study aims to compare the tap and bottled water and manifest the reasons behind choosing the bottled water, which is less comfortable and often more expensive over the tap water. In this study, samples have been taken from both bottled and tap water in Koya city from November 2020 to May 2021 to test their quality using PH, DO, EC, and TDS meter, hardness was determined by complexometric titration method at 21°C, and XRF spectrometers. According to the quality standards, most of the variables were in a permissible range, except for dissolved oxygen and Aluminum content in both types of water and TDS for two types of bottled water. However, the quality of tap water was much safer to be used, as compared with the bottled water.

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Tendencies towards bottled drinking water consumption: Challenges ahead of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste management

Health Promotion Perspectives ◽

10.34172/hpp.2021.09 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (1) ◽

pp. 60-68

Author(s):

Hassan Aslani ◽

Parisa Pashmtab ◽

Abdolreza Shaghaghi ◽

Asghar Mohammadpoorasl ◽

Hassan Taghipour ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Water Consumption ◽

Tap Water ◽

Bottled Water ◽

Water Usage ◽

Pet Waste ◽

Bottled Drinking Water ◽

Time Period ◽

Waste Generation Rate ◽

Tap Water Quality

Background: The main objective of this study was to investigate the logics behind tendencies towards bottled drinking water usage in spite of availability of treated tap water. The amount of waste bottle is also estimated in Iran and managing principles for resolving the issue presented. Methods: A questionnaire was used to survey the logics behind tendencies toward bottled drinking water consumption among 120 participants. In order to estimate the quantities of the PET wastes produced in the country, data about bottled water production rate as well as volume of the imported and exported drinking bottled water were collected from 1962 to 2015 and applied in the calculations. Results: Findings suggested that about 0.026 to 3.86 billion liters (about 1.04 billion literson average) of bottled water was consumed annually between 2000 and 2015. Furthermore, bottled water consumption increased from 0.41 to 48.9 L/capita-year within the same time period. In the meantime, the plastic bottle waste generation rate rose from 12.84 to 1519.38 g/capita-year. There is no efficient and suitable system for managing and recycling waste bottles in the country. The perceived unreliability of tap water quality was the main reason of bottled water consumption among 74% of the respondents. Conclusion: To reduce bottled water consumption and the associated harmful environmental and health consequences, measures such as informing people, validating public water supply quality, preventive rules enactment, and establishing extended producer responsibility (EPR) are highly recommended.

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Providing Students with Adequate School Drinking Water Access in an Era of Aging Infrastructure: A Mixed Methods Investigation

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph17010062 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 17 (1) ◽

pp. 62 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Erica L. Kenney ◽

James G. Daly ◽

Rebekka M. Lee ◽

Rebecca S. Mozaffarian ◽

Katherine Walsh ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Mixed Methods ◽

Water Consumption ◽

Tap Water ◽

Delivery Systems ◽

Bottled Water ◽

Water Delivery ◽

Water Access ◽

Urban District ◽

Aging Infrastructure

Ensuring students’ access to safe drinking water at school is essential. However, many schools struggle with aging infrastructure and subsequent water safety problems and have turned to bottled water delivery systems. Little is known about whether such systems are feasible and effective in providing adequate student water access. This study was a mixed-methods investigation among six schools in an urban district in the U.S. with two types of water delivery systems: (1) tap water infrastructure, with updated water fountains and bottle fillers, and (2) bottled water coolers. We measured students’ water consumption and collected qualitative data from students and teachers about their perceptions of school drinking water. Student water consumption was low—between 2.0 (SD: 1.4) ounces per student and 2.4 (SD: 1.1) ounces per student during lunch. Students and teachers reported substantial operational hurdles for relying on bottled water as a school’s primary source of drinking water, including difficulties in stocking, cleaning, and maintaining the units. While students and teachers perceived newer bottle filler units positively, they also reported a distrust of tap water. Bottled water delivery systems may not be effective long-term solutions for providing adequate school drinking water access and robust efforts are needed to restore trust in tap water.

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Water and time use: evidence from Kathmandu, Nepal

Water Policy ◽

10.2166/wp.2019.082 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 21 (S1) ◽

pp. 76-100 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Yvonne Jie Chen ◽

Namrata Chindarkar ◽

Jane Zhao

Keyword(s):

Water Consumption ◽

Time Use ◽

Tap Water ◽

Objective Measure ◽

Total Water ◽

Urban Households ◽

Time Diary ◽

Total Water Consumption ◽

Household Water ◽

Water Collection

Abstract In this paper, we examine the effect of private tap water reliability on time spent on water collection and total water consumption among urban households in Kathmandu, Nepal. Although the majority of households in Kathmandu are connected to a private tap, they experience intermittent water supply. We link a unique time diary dataset collected between 2014 and 2015 to household water consumption and tap water reliability data. Our empirical analyses demonstrate that improved reliability of private tap water connection (PWC), measured as self-reported reliability and an objective measure of ‘probability of getting tap water in the next hour’, leads to increased time spent on water collection. Households with more reliable PWC also consume more water overall and from their own taps. Further investigation demonstrates that when private taps became more reliable, households substituted water collected from outside the household, such as water from public taps and public wells, with water from their own private taps. Our results proved robust to additional specification checks.

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