3 Baruch Revisited: Jewish or Christian Composition, and Why It Matters

Author(s):  
Martha Himmelfarb

AbstractIn his important 1976 paper, “The Pseudepigrapha in Christianity,” Robert A. Kraft insists that scholars of ancient Judaism and Christianity need to take full account of the Christian contexts in which so-called Old Testament pseudpigrapha have come down to us before attempting to make the case that a text preserved only in late manuscripts in languages used primarily or exclusively by Christians reflects a Jewish original of the Second Temple period. The end result, Kraft admitted, is likely to be a smaller library of Jewish works from the turn of the era. This paper discusses 3 Baruch, an apocalypse that most scholars have treated as originally Jewish despite, in addition to its preservation by Christians, certain features quite unusual in Jewish works, as a test case. It argues that recent scholarship has failed to give adequate weight to Kraft’s crucial insights and suggests that scholarly accounts of diaspora Judaism in the Second Temple period would look rather different if those insights were taken more seriously. Finally it offers some tentative suggestions about a Christian setting in which 3 Baruch might have been composed.

2020 ◽  
Vol 91 (1) ◽  
pp. 50-65
Author(s):  
Adam W. Jones

Divine anthropomorphisms are prevalent in the Old Testament. Authors of Old Testament works seemingly had no reservations with using human qualities to describe God. During the Second Temple period Greek philosophy began to influence the interpretation of texts that describe God using anthropomorphisms. This shift in understanding God is evidenced in translation tendencies in the Septuagint and in Philo’s reading of Hebrew Scripture. The elements of proto-Gnosticism found in Philo’s writings are at times closely related to his interpretation of anthropomorphism. Since Philo’s understanding of such figures of speech has been the historic majority view, it is important to evaluate his method of interpretation to determine whether this understanding of divine anthropomorphism is rooted in Scripture or his philosophical tradition.


2007 ◽  
Vol 36 (3-4) ◽  
pp. 461-495
Author(s):  
Annette Yoshiko Reed

This article considers the place of scientific inquiry in ancient Judaism with a focus on astronomy and cosmology. It explores how ancient Jews used biblical interpretation to situate "scientific" knowledge in relation to "religious" concerns. In the Second Temple period (538 B.C.E.-70 C.E.) biblical interpretation is often used to integrate insights from Mesopotamian and Greek scientific traditions. In classical rabbinic Judaism (70-600 C.E.) astronomy became marked as an esoteric discipline, and cosmology is understood in terms of Ma'aseh Bereshit, a category that blurs the boundaries between "science" and "religion." Whereas modern thinkers often see Judaism and "science" as incompatible, medieval Jewish thinkers built on these ancient traditions; some even viewed themselves as heirs to a Jewish intellectual tradition that included astronomy, cosmology, medicine and mathematics.


Author(s):  
Timothy H. Lim

The Dead Sea Scrolls have shed light on the canonization of the Old Testament or Hebrew Bible in the Second Temple period. They provide us with exemplars of their biblical texts and how they used them in an authoritative manner. ‘The canon, authoritative scriptures, and the scrolls’ explains that the sectarian concept of authoritative scriptures seemed to reflect a dual pattern of authority by which the traditional biblical texts served as the source of the sectarian interpretation that in turn was defined by it. The authority was graded, beginning with the biblical books and extending to other books that were not eventually included in the canon.


2001 ◽  
Vol 35 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
W. Rose

The New Testament is connected to the Old Testament in a number of different ways. It is not unusual to find the word “messianic” used to categorise all the different ways in which the writers of the New Testament find Christ (and, similarly, Jewish sources of the Second Temple Period later find the future Messiah) in the Old Testament, or to identify the specific passages in the Old Testament which are now seen to point to Christ/the Messiah. In this article I argue that, if one wants to be able to appreciate the diversity, one should abandon this indiscriminate use of the word “messianic”. After a brief discussion of the meaning and use of the Hebrew word xyvm in the Old Testament, I propose a definition of the phrase “messianic expectations” (expectations focusing on a future royal figure sent by God – someone who will bring salvation to God’s people and the world and establish a kingdom characterised by features such as peace and justice). Subsequently, the origin of these expectations is located as in the proclamation of the eighth-century prophets (Amos, Isaiah and Micah). Finally, one special category of messianic expectations, that is, messianic expectations in the Books of the Psalms, is dealt with.


2020 ◽  
pp. 0142064X2096266
Author(s):  
Philip La G. Du Toit

In the prevalent interpretations of Israel’s salvation or restoration in Luke–Acts, Israel is understood as referring to descendants of ancient Israel who live in the present or beyond. In light of the predominant usage of the term ‘Israel’ in the second temple period, the prevalent interpretation of Israel’s salvation in Luke–Acts is reconsidered. This is done by mainly revisiting the realized language around Israel’s salvation in the Lukan corpus as well as the Old Testament context behind the language used. This re-evaluation also involves the way in which Israel’s forgiveness is presented, the involvement of the patriarchs in salvation, as well as the connection between Israel’s hope and their resurrection.


2019 ◽  
Vol 112 (3) ◽  
pp. 340-357
Author(s):  
Avigail Manekin-Bamberger

AbstractUttering a vow was an important and popular religious practice in ancient Judaism. It is mentioned frequently in biblical literature, and an entire rabbinic tractate, Nedarim, is devoted to this subject. In this article, I argue that starting from the Second Temple period, alongside the regular use of the vow, vows were also used as an aggressive binding mechanism in interpersonal situations. This practice became so popular that in certain contexts the vow became synonymous with the curse, as in a number of ossuaries in Jerusalem and in the later Aramaic incantation bowls. Moreover, this semantic expansion was not an isolated Jewish phenomenon but echoed both the use of the anathema in the Pauline epistles and contemporary Greco-Roman and Babylonian magical practices.


2015 ◽  
Vol 16 (1) ◽  
pp. 99-130
Author(s):  
Raʿanan Boustan ◽  
Michael Beshay

Abstract This paper traces the historical development of the tradition that King Solomon made use of a signet-ring to marshal the demons as a labor-force for the construction of the Jerusalem Temple and analyzes the shifting ritual uses to which this tradition was put.We argue that this tradition, which is most fully articulated in the Testament of Solomon, is a Christian innovation of the third and fourth centuries rather than a venerable Jewish tradition with roots in the Second Temple period. This branch of the Solomon tradition first emerged within the context of internal Christian debates of the third century concerning proper baptismal practice, where the power of baptism to provide protection from the demons was linked to debates concerning the efficacy of Solomon’s act of sealing the demons in the temple. In the post-Constantinian period, the ring of Solomon was venerated by pilgrims to Jerusalem as a “relic” of Israelite kingship alongside the True Cross. Like certain strands of the Testament of Solomon literature, the pilgrimage practices performed at this potent site figure Christ’s victory on the cross as the fulfillment-once and for all-of Solomon’s only provisional mastery over the demons. In this context, Solomon’s ring gave concrete expression to Christian claims on the Old Testament past, while also mediating between imperial and ecclesiastical power.


Author(s):  
Илья Сергеевич Вевюрко

В работе Катерины Кудрявцевой перспектива рассмотрения загадочного образа из Апокалипсиса иная — не богословская, а, скорее, религиоведческая. Но религиоведческая точка зрения не может не включать в себя богословскую, иначе она рискует исказить свой предмет — религию, обойдя вниманием её вероучительную сторону. К. Г. Кудрявцевой удалось прийти к богословскому рассмотрению образа религиоведческим путём, а именно путём расшифровки его семантики. В этом смысле её исследование подобно работе с красками, восстанавливающими цвета фрески до первоначальной яркости (пусть виртуально, чтобы не вмешаться с новой кистью в исторически сохранившиеся слои), в то время как схема рисунка и его сюжет остаются теми же самыми. К. Г. Кудрявцева берёт за основу нарратив видения св. апостола Иоанна, который она разделяет на четыре аспекта и даёт им довольно поэтические названия: «Застигнутая жизнью и смертью»; «Свечение»; «Противостояние как погоня»; «Город». По этим четырём ключевым темам распределена на параграфы каждая из пяти глав работы, которые охватывают мировой фольклор, корпус канонических книг Ветхого Завета, письменность эпохи Второго Храма, литературный контекст Откровения св. Иоанна Богослова (то есть тоже произведения периода Второго Храма, но наиболее близкие по развитию своей образности к Апокалипсису) и, наконец, сам текст Откровения. In Katerina Kudryavtseva's work, the perspective of the enigmatic image from the Apocalypse is different - not theological but, rather, religious studies. But a theological perspective could not avoid incorporating a theological perspective, otherwise it would risk distorting its subject, religion, by neglecting its doctrinal side. K.G. Kudryavtseva was able to reach a theological consideration of the image in a theological way, namely by deciphering its semantics. In this sense, her research is like working with paints, restoring the colours of a fresco to their original brightness (albeit virtually, so as not to intervene with a new brush in the historically preserved layers), while the scheme of the drawing and its subject remain the same. K.G. Kudryavtseva takes as a basis the narrative of St. John's vision, which she divides into four aspects and gives them rather poetic titles: "Caught in Life and Death"; "Illumination"; "Confrontation as Chase"; "City". Each of the five chapters is divided into paragraphs according to these four key themes, covering world folklore, the corpus of canonical books of the Old Testament, the writing of the Second Temple period, the literary context of the Revelation of Saint John the Evangelist (that is, also works from the Second Temple period, but closest in their development of imagery to the Apocalypse) and, finally, the text of Revelation itself.


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