Abstract
An estimate of the time-varying global ocean circulation for the period 1992–2002 was obtained by combining most of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) ocean datasets with a general circulation model on a 1° horizontal grid. The estimate exactly satisfies the model equations without artificial sources or sinks of momentum, heat, and freshwater. To bring the model into agreement with observations, its initial temperature and salinity conditions were permitted to change, as were the time-dependent surface fluxes of momentum, heat, and freshwater. The estimation of these “control variables” is largely consistent with accepted uncertainties in the hydrographic climatology and meteorological analyses. The estimated time-mean horizontal transports of volume, heat, and freshwater, which were largely underestimated in the previous 2° optimization performed by Stammer et al., have converged with time-independent estimates from box inversions over most parts of the World Ocean. Trends in the model’s heat content are 7% larger than those reported by Levitus and correspond to a global net heat uptake of about 1.1 W m−2 over the model domain. The associated model trend in sea surface height over the estimation period resembles the observations from Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEX)/Poseidon over most of the global ocean. Sea surface height changes in the model are primarily steric but show contributions from mass redistributions from the subpolar North Atlantic Ocean and the Southern Ocean to the subtropical Pacific Ocean gyres. Steric contributions are primarily temperature based but are partly compensated by salt variation. However, the North Atlantic and the Southern Ocean reveal a clear contribution of salt to large-scale sea level variations.
On the world ocean circulation. Volume I, Some global features/North Atlantic circulation