AbstractInvasive breast cancer (BrCa) is predicted to affect 1 in 9 women in a lifetime;1 in 32 will die from this disease. The most aggressive forms of BrCa, basal-like/triple-negative phenotype (TNBC), are challenging to treat and result in higher mortality due high number of metastatic cases. There is a paucity of options for TNBC treatment, which highlights the need for additional innovative treatment approaches. NIH-III mice were injected in the abdominal mammary fat pad with luciferase-expressing derivative of the human TNBC cell line, MDA-MB-231 cells. Animals were gavage-fed with nitrofen at the doses of 1, 3 or 6 mg/kg/alternate days. However, several structural properties/components of nitrofen raise concerns, including its high lipophilicity (cLogP of nearly 5) and a potential toxophore in the form of a nitroarene group. Therefore, we developed analogues of nitrofen which lack the nitro group and/or have replaced the diaryl ether linker with a diarylamine that could allow modulation of polarity. In vitro anti-invasiveness activity of nitrofen analogues were evaluated by quantitative determination of invasion of MDA-MB-231-Luciferase cells through Matrigel using a Boyden chamber. Our in vivo data show that nitrofen efficiently blocks TNBC tumor metastasis. In vitro data suggest that this is not due to cytotoxicity, but rather is due to impairment of invasive capacity of the cells. Further, using an in vitro model of EMT, we show that nitrofen interferes with the process of EMT and promotes mesenchymal to epithelial transformation. In addition, we show that three of the nitrofen analogues significantly reduced invasive potential of TNBC cells, which may, at least partially, be attributed to the analogues’ ability to promote mesenchymal to epithelial-like transformation of TNBC cells. Our study shows that nitrofen, and more importantly its analogues, are significantly effective in limiting the invasive potential of TNBC cell lines with minimal cytotoxic effect. Further, we demonstrate that nitrofen its analogues, are very effective in reversing mesenchymal phenotype to a more epithelial-like phenotype. This may be significant for the treatment of patients with mesenchymal-TNBC tumor subtype who are well known to exhibit high resistance to chemotherapy.
Methionine deprivation suppresses triple-negative breast cancer metastasis in vitro and in vivo
