scholarly journals Cross-Sectional Geometry Predicts Failure Location in Maize Stalks

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christopher J Stubbs ◽  
Christopher McMahan ◽  
Kaitlin Tabaracci ◽  
Bharath Kunduru ◽  
Rajandeep S. Sekhon ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Bending Strength ◽  
Critical Role ◽  
Bending Stress ◽  
Lodging Resistance ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Biomechanical Models ◽  
Bending Stresses ◽  
Failure Location ◽  
Stalk Lodging ◽  
Maize Stalks

Abstract Background: Stalk lodging (breaking of agricultural plant stalks prior to harvest) is a multi-billion dollar a year problem. Stalk lodging occurs when high winds induce bending moments in the stalk which exceed the bending strength of the plant. Previous biomechanical models of plant stalks have investigated the effect of cross-sectional morphology on stalk lodging resistance (e.g., diameter and rind thickness). However, it is unclear if the location of stalk failure along the length of stem is determined by morphological or compositional factors. It is also unclear if the crops are structurally optimized, i.e., if the plants allocate structural biomass to create uniform and minimal bending stresses in the plant tissues. The purpose of this paper is twofold: (1) to investigate the relationship between bending stress and failure location of maize stalks, and (2) to investigate the potential of phenotyping for internode-level bending stresses to assess lodging resistance. Results: 868 maize specimens representing 16 maize hybrids were successfully tested in bending to failure. Internode morphology was measured, and bending stresses were calculated. It was found that bending stress is highly and positively associated with failure location. A user-friendly computational tool is presented to help plant breeders in phenotyping for internode-level bending stress. Phenotyping for internode-level bending stresses could potentially be used to breed for more biomechanically optimal stalks that are resistant to stalk lodging. Conclusions: Internode-level bending stress plays a potentially critical role in the structural integrity of plant stems. Equations and tools provided herein enable researchers to account for this phenotype, which has the potential to increase the bending strength of plants without increasing overall structural biomass.

scholarly journals Are Maize Stalks Efficiently Tapered to Withstand Wind Induced Bending Stresses?

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christopher J Stubbs ◽  
Kate Seegmiller ◽  
Rajandeep S. Sekhon ◽  
Daniel J. Robertson
Keyword(s):  
Optimization Algorithm ◽  
Bending Strength ◽  
Wind Loading ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Structural Efficiency ◽  
Agricultural Plant ◽  
Bending Stresses ◽  
Hybrid Maize ◽  
Stalk Lodging ◽  
Maize Stalks

AbstractStalk lodging (breaking of agricultural plant stalks prior to harvest) results in millions of dollars in lost revenue each year. Despite a growing body of literature on the topic of stalk lodging, the structural efficiency of maize stalks has not been investigated previously. In this study, we investigate the morphology of mature maize stalks to determine if rind tissues, which are the major load bearing component of corn stalks, are efficiently organized to withstand wind induced bending stresses that cause stalk lodging.945 fully mature, dried commercial hybrid maize stem specimens (48 hybrids, ∼2 replicates, ∼10 samples per plot) were subjected to: (1) three-point-bending tests to measure their bending strength and (2) rind penetration tests to measure the cross-sectional morphology at each internode. The data were analyzed through an engineering optimization algorithm to determine the structural efficiency of the specimens.Hybrids with higher average bending strengths were found to allocate rind tissue more efficiently than weaker hybrids. However, even strong hybrids were structurally suboptimal. There remains significant room for improving the structural efficiency of maize stalks. Results also indicated that stalks are morphologically organized to resist wind loading that occurs primarily above the ear. Results are applicable to selective breeding and crop management studies seeking to reduce stalk lodging rates.HighlightMaize stem morphology was investigated through an optimization algorithm to determine how efficiently their structural tissues are allocated to withstand wind induced bending stresses that cause stalk lodging.

scholarly journals The Effect of Self-Loading on the Mechano-Stability and Stalk Lodging Resistance of Plant Stems

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christopher J Stubbs ◽  
Yusuf Oduntan ◽  
Tyrone Keep ◽  
Scott D Noble ◽  
Daniel J. Robertson
Keyword(s):  
Structural Integrity ◽  
Bending Strength ◽  
Flexural Rigidity ◽  
Critical Role ◽  
External Loading ◽  
Lodging Resistance ◽  
Plant Weight ◽  
Agricultural Plant ◽  
Generalized Framework ◽  
Stalk Lodging

AbstractBackgroundStalk lodging (breaking of agricultural plant stalks prior to harvest) is a multi-billion dollar a year problem. Stalk lodging occurs when bending moments induced by a combination of external loading (e.g. wind) and self-loading (e.g. the plant’s own weight) exceed the bending strength of plant stems. Previous biomechanical plant stem models have investigated both external loading and self-loading of plants, but have evaluated them as separate and independent phenomena. However, these two types of loading are highly interconnected and mutually dependent. The purpose of this paper is twofold: (1) to investigate the combined effect of external loads and plant weight on the displacement and stress state of plant stems / stalks, and (2) to provide a generalized framework for accounting for self-weight during mechanical phenotyping experiments used to predict stalk lodging resistance.ResultsA method of properly accounting for the interconnected relationship between self-loading and external loading of plants stems is presented. The interconnected set of equations are used to produce user-friendly applications by presenting (1) simplified self-loading correction factors for a number of common external loading configurations of plants, and (2) a generalized Microsoft Excel framework that calculates the influence of self-loading on crop stems. The effect of self-loading on the structural integrity of wheat is examined in detail. A survey of several other plants is conducted and the influence of self-loading on their structural integrity is also presented.ConclusionsThe self-loading of plants plays a potentially critical role on the structural integrity of plant stems. Equations and tools provided herein enable researchers to account for the plant’s weight when investigating the flexural rigidity and bending strength of plant stems.

scholarly journals The Effect of Self-Loading on the Mechano-Stability and Stalk Lodging Resistance of Plant Stems

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christopher J Stubbs ◽  
Yusuf Oduntan ◽  
Tyrone Keep ◽  
Scott D Noble ◽  
Daniel J Robertson
Keyword(s):  
Structural Integrity ◽  
Bending Strength ◽  
Flexural Rigidity ◽  
Critical Role ◽  
External Loading ◽  
Lodging Resistance ◽  
Plant Weight ◽  
Agricultural Plant ◽  
Generalized Framework ◽  
Stalk Lodging

Abstract Background Stalk lodging (breaking of agricultural plant stalks prior to harvest) is a multi-billion dollar a year problem. Stalk lodging occurs when bending moments induced by a combination of external loading (e.g. wind) and self-loading (e.g. the plant’s own weight) exceed the bending strength of plant stems. Previous biomechanical plant stem models have investigated both external loading and self-loading of plants, but have evaluated them as separate and independent phenomena. However, these two types of loading are highly interconnected and mutually dependent. The purpose of this paper is twofold: (1) to investigate the combined effect of external loads and plant weight on the displacement and stress state of plant stems / stalks, and (2) to provide a generalized framework for accounting for self-weight during mechanical phenotyping experiments used to predict stalk lodging resistance.Results A method of properly accounting for the interconnected relationship between self-loading and external loading of plants stems is presented. The interconnected set of equations are used to produce user-friendly applications by presenting (1) simplified self-loading correction factors for a number of common external loading configurations of plants, and (2) a generalized Microsoft Excel framework that calculates the influence of self-loading on crop stems. The effect of self-loading on the structural integrity of wheat is examined in detail. A survey of several other plants is conducted and the influence of self-loading on their structural integrity is also presented.Conclusions The self-loading of plants plays a potentially critical role on the structural integrity of plant stems. Equations and tools provided herein enable researchers to account for the plant’s weight when investigating the flexural rigidity and bending strength of plant stems.

scholarly journals The Effect of Plant Weight on Estimations of Stalk Flexural Stiffness and Stalk Lodging Resistance

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christopher J Stubbs ◽  
Yusuf Oduntan ◽  
Tyrone Keep ◽  
Scott D Noble ◽  
Daniel J Robertson
Keyword(s):  
Bending Strength ◽  
Flexural Rigidity ◽  
Critical Role ◽  
Structural Response ◽  
The Self ◽  
External Loading ◽  
Flexural Stiffness ◽  
Lodging Resistance ◽  
Plant Weight ◽  
Stalk Lodging

Abstract Background: Stalk lodging (breaking of agricultural plant stalks prior to harvest) is a multi-billion dollar a year problem. Stalk lodging occurs when bending moments induced by a combination of external loading (e.g. wind) and self-loading (e.g. the plant’s own weight) exceed the bending strength of plant stems. Previous studies have investigated external loading and self-loading of plants as separate and independent phenomena. However, these two types of loading are highly interconnected and mutually dependent. The purpose of this paper is twofold: (1) to investigate the combined effect of external loads and plant weight on the flexural response of plant stems, and (2) to provide a generalized framework for accounting for self-weight during mechanical phenotyping experiments used to predict stalk lodging resistance. Results: A method of properly accounting for the interconnected relationship between self-loading and external loading of plants stems is presented. The interconnected set of equations are used to produce user-friendly applications by presenting (1) simplified self-loading correction factors for a number of common external loading configurations of plants, and (2) a generalized Microsoft Excel framework that calculates the influence of self-loading on crop stems. The effect of self-loading on the bending strength measurements of wheat is examined in detail. A survey of several other plants is conducted and the influence of self-loading on their structural response is also presented. Conclusions: The self-loading of plants plays a potentially critical role in determining the structural response of plant stems. Equations and tools provided herein enable researchers to account for the plant’s weight during mechanical phenotyping experiments used to determine the flexural rigidity and bending strength of plant stems. Results demonstrated that ignoring the self-loading of some plants can result in errors of 25% for flexural stiffness and 20% for bending strength.

scholarly journals The Overlooked Biomechanical Role of the Clasping Leaf Sheath in Wheat Stalk Lodging

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Joseph Cornwall ◽  
Christopher J. Stubbs ◽  
Christopher S. McMahan ◽  
Daniel J. Robertson
Keyword(s):  
Bending Strength ◽  
Flexural Rigidity ◽  
Leaf Sheath ◽  
Effective Diameter ◽  
Lodging Resistance ◽  
Failure Patterns ◽  
Bending Loads ◽  
Stalk Lodging ◽  
Biomechanical Factors

The biomechanical role of the clasping leaf sheath in stalk lodging events has been historically understudied. Results from this study indicate that in some instances the leaf sheath plays an even larger role in reinforcing wheat against stalk lodging than the stem itself. Interestingly, it appears the leaf sheath does not resist bending loads by merely adding more material to the stalk (i.e., increasing the effective diameter). The radial preload of the leaf sheath on the stem, the friction between the sheath and the stem and several other complex biomechanical factors may contribute to increasing the stalk bending strength and stalk flexural rigidity of wheat. Results demonstrated that removal of the leaf sheath induces alternate failure patterns in wheat stalks. In summary the biomechanical role of the leaf sheath is complex and has yet to be fully elucidated. Many future studies are needed to develop high throughput phenotyping methodologies and to determine the genetic underpinnings of the clasping leaf sheath and its relation to stalk lodging resistance. Research in this area is expected to improve the lodging resistance of wheat.

scholarly journals High throughput phenotyping of cross-sectional morphology to assess stalk lodging resistance

Plant Methods ◽  
2022 ◽  
Vol 18 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Yusuf A. Oduntan ◽  
Christopher J. Stubbs ◽  
Daniel J. Robertson
Keyword(s):  
Finite Element ◽  
High Throughput ◽  
Plant Traits ◽  
Finite Element Models ◽  
Vascular Bundles ◽  
Lodging Resistance ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Conium Maculatum ◽  
Finite Element Software ◽  
Stalk Lodging

Abstract Background Stalk lodging (mechanical failure of plant stems during windstorms) leads to global yield losses in cereal crops estimated to range from 5% to 25% annually. The cross-sectional morphology of plant stalks is a key determinant of stalk lodging resistance. However, previously developed techniques for quantifying cross-sectional morphology of plant stalks are relatively low-throughput, expensive and often require specialized equipment and expertise. There is need for a simple and cost-effective technique to quantify plant traits related to stalk lodging resistance in a high-throughput manner. Results A new phenotyping methodology was developed and applied to a range of plant samples including, maize (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), wheat (Triticum aestivum), poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), and Arabidopsis (Arabis thaliana). The major diameter, minor diameter, rind thickness and number of vascular bundles were quantified for each of these plant types. Linear correlation analyses demonstrated strong agreement between the newly developed method and more time-consuming manual techniques (R2 > 0.9). In addition, the new method was used to generate several specimen-specific finite element models of plant stalks. All the models compiled without issue and were successfully imported into finite element software for analysis. All the models demonstrated reasonable and stable solutions when subjected to realistic applied loads. Conclusions A rapid, low-cost, and user-friendly phenotyping methodology was developed to quantify two-dimensional plant cross-sections. The methodology offers reduced sample preparation time and cost as compared to previously developed techniques. The new methodology employs a stereoscope and a semi-automated image processing algorithm. The algorithm can be used to produce specimen-specific, dimensionally accurate computational models (including finite element models) of plant stalks.

scholarly journals The Effect of Plant Weight on Estimations of Stalk Lodging Resistance

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christopher J Stubbs ◽  
Yusuf Oduntan ◽  
Tyrone Keep ◽  
Scott D Noble ◽  
Daniel J Robertson
Keyword(s):  
Bending Strength ◽  
Structural Response ◽  
External Loading ◽  
Lodging Resistance ◽  
Plant Weight ◽  
Agricultural Plant ◽  
Flexural Response ◽  
Generalized Framework ◽  
User Friendly ◽  
Stalk Lodging

Abstract Background: Stalk lodging (breaking of agricultural plant stalks prior to harvest) is a multi-billion dollar a year problem. Stalk lodging occurs when bending moments induced by a combination of external loading (e.g. wind) and self-loading (e.g. the plant’s own weight) exceed the stalk bending strength of plant stems. Previous studies have investigated external loading and self-loading of plants as separate and independent phenomena. However, these two types of loading are highly interconnected and mutually dependent. The purpose of this paper is twofold: (1) to investigate the combined effect of external loads and plant weight on the flexural response of plant stems, and (2) to provide a generalized framework for accounting for self-weight during mechanical phenotyping experiments used to predict stalk lodging resistance. Results: A mathematical methodology for properly accounting for the interconnected relationship between self-loading and external loading of plants stems is presented. The method was compared to numerous finite element models of plants stems and found to be highly accurate. The resulting interconnected set of equations from the derivation were used to produce user-friendly applications by presenting (1) simplified self-loading correction factors for common loading configurations of plants, and (2) a generalized Microsoft Excel framework that calculates the influence of self-loading on crop stems. Results indicate that ignoring the effects of self-loading when calculating stalk flexural stiffness is appropriate for large and stiff plants such as maize, bamboo, and sorghum. However, significant errors result when ignoring the effects of self-loading in smaller plants with larger relative grain sizes, such as rice (8% error) and wheat (16% error).Conclusions: Properly accounting for self-weight can be critical to determining the structural response of plant stems. Equations and tools provided herein enable researchers to properly account for the plant’s weight during mechanical phenotyping experiments used to determine stalk lodging resistance.

scholarly journals Stalk Bending Strength is Strongly Associated with Maize Stalk Lodging Incidence Across Multiple Environments

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rajandeep S. Sekhon ◽  
Chase N. Joyner ◽  
Arlyn J. Ackerman ◽  
Christopher S. McMahan ◽  
Douglas D. Cook ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Bending Strength ◽  
Genetic Regulation ◽  
Joint Analysis ◽  
Reliable Estimate ◽  
Cellulose Content ◽  
Lodging Resistance ◽  
Puncture Resistance ◽  
Failure Patterns ◽  
Select Group ◽  
Stalk Lodging

AbstractStalk lodging in maize results in substantial yield losses worldwide. These losses could be prevented through genetic improvement. However, breeding efforts and genetics studies are hindered by lack of a robust and economical phenotyping method for assessing stalk lodging resistance. A field-based phenotyping platform that induces failure patterns consistent with natural stalk lodging events and measures stalk bending strength in field-grown plants was recently developed. Here we examine the association between data gathered from this new phenotyping platform with counts of stalk lodging incidence on a select group of maize hybrids. For comparative purposes, we examine four additional predictive phenotypes commonly assumed to be related to stalk lodging resistance; namely, rind puncture resistance, cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Historical counts of lodging incidence were gathered on 47 hybrids, grown in 98 distinct environments, spanning four years and 41 unique geographical locations in North America. Using Bayesian generalized linear mixed effects models, we show that stalk lodging incidence is associated with each of the five predictive phenotypes. Further, based on a joint analysis we demonstrate that, among the phenotypes considered, stalk bending strength measured by the new phenotyping platform is the most important predictive phenotype of naturally occurring stalk lodging incidence in maize, followed by rind puncture resistance and cellulose content. This study demonstrates that field-based measurements of stalk bending strength provide a reliable estimate of stalk lodging incidence. The stalk bending strength data acquired from the new phenotyping platform will be valuable for phenotypic selection in breeding programs and for generating mechanistic insights into the genetic regulation of stalk lodging resistance.

scholarly journals Integrated Puncture Score: Force-Displacement Weighted Rind Penetration Tests Improve Stalk Lodging Resistance Estimations in Maize

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christopher J Stubbs ◽  
Christopher McMahan ◽  
Will Seegmiller ◽  
Douglas D Cook ◽  
Daniel J Robertson
Keyword(s):  
Bending Strength ◽  
Penetration Resistance ◽  
Lodging Resistance ◽  
Data Set ◽  
Penetration Testing ◽  
Agricultural Plant ◽  
Power Of The Test ◽  
Score Method ◽  
High Throughput Phenotyping ◽  
Stalk Lodging

Abstract Background: Stalk lodging (breaking of agricultural plant stalks prior to harvest) is a multi-billion dollar a year problem. Rind penetration resistance tests have been used by plant scientists and breeders to estimate the stalk lodging resistance of maize for nearly a hundred years. However, the rind puncture method has two key limitations: (1) the predictive power of the test decreases significantly when measuring elite or pre-commercial hybrids, and (2) using rind penetration measurements as a breeding metric does not necessarily create stronger stalks. In this study, we present a new rind penetration method called the Integrated Puncture Score, which uses a modified rind penetration testing protocol and a physics-based model to provide a robust measure of stalk lodging resistance. Results: Two datasets, one with a diverse array of maize hybrids and one with only elite hybrids, were evaluated by comparing traditional rind penetration testing and the Integrated Puncture Score method to measurements of stalk bending strength. When evaluating the diverse set of hybrids, both methods were good predictors of stalk bending strength (R2 values of 0.67). However, when evaluating elite hybrids, the Integrated Puncture Score had an R2 value of 0.74 whereas the traditional method had an R2 value of 0.48. Additionally, the Integrated Puncture Score was able to differentiate between the strongest and weakest hybrids in the elite hybrid data set whereas the traditional rind penetration method was not. Additional experiments revealed strong evidence in favor of the data aggregation steps utilized to compute the Integrated Puncture Score. Conclusions: This study presents a new method for evaluating rind penetration resistance that highly correlates with stalk bending strength and can possibly be used as a breeding index for assessing stalk lodging resistance. This research lays the foundation required to develop a field-based high-throughput phenotyping device for stalk lodging resistance.

scholarly journals High Throughput Phenotyping of Cross-sectional Morphology to Assess Stalk Lodging Resistance

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yusuf A Oduntan ◽  
Christopher J Stubbs ◽  
Daniel J Robertson
Keyword(s):  
Finite Element ◽  
High Throughput ◽  
Plant Traits ◽  
Finite Element Models ◽  
Vascular Bundles ◽  
Lodging Resistance ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Conium Maculatum ◽  
Finite Element Software ◽  
Stalk Lodging

Abstract Background Stalk lodging (mechanical failure of plant stems during windstorms) leads to global yield losses in cereal crops estimated to range from 5% - 25% annually. The cross-sectional morphology of plant stalks is a key determinant of stalk lodging resistance. However, previously developed techniques for quantifying cross-sectional morphology of plant stalks are relatively low-throughput, expensive and often require specialized equipment and expertise. There is need for a simple and cost-effective technique to quantify plant traits related to stalk lodging resistance in a high-throughput manner.Results A new phenotyping methodology was developed and applied to a range of plant samples including, maize (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), wheat (Triticum aestivum), poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), and Arabidopsis (Arabis thaliana). The major diameter, minor diameter, rind thickness and number of vascular bundles were quantified for each of these plant types. Linear correlation analyses demonstrated strong agreement between the newly developed method and more time-consuming manual techniques (R2>0.9). In addition, the new method was used to generate several specimen-specific finite element models of plant stalks. All the models compiled without issue and were successfully imported into finite element software for analysis. All the models demonstrated reasonable and stable solutions when subjected to realistic applied loads.Conclusions A rapid, low-cost, and user-friendly phenotyping methodology was developed to quantify two-dimensional plant cross-sections. The methodology offers reduced sample preparation time and cost as compared to previously developed techniques. The new methodology employs a stereoscope and a semi-automated image processing algorithm. The algorithm can be used to produce specimen-specific, dimensionally accurate computational models (including finite element models) of plant stalks.

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