scholarly journals Dynamism in the Gender Wage Gap: Evidence from Pakistan

2007 ◽  
Vol 46 (4II) ◽  
pp. 865-882 ◽  
Author(s):  
Muhammad Sabir ◽  
Zehra Aftab
Keyword(s):  
Labour Market ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Gender Discrimination ◽  
Gender Wage Gap ◽  
Wage Gap ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Labour Force Participation ◽  
Wage Distribution ◽  
Socioeconomic Indicators ◽  
Almost All

One of the main caveats of Pakistan’s economic development history is the persistence of gender inequality with respect to almost all socioeconomic indicators. For instance, Pakistan ranks 66, out of 75 countries, with respect to the Gender Empowerment Measure (Human Development Report, 2006) with a GEM value of 0.377, largely a manifestation of very low estimated female to male earned income ratio, which is a depressing 0.29. GEM and other labour force statistics confirm the gender gap in labour force participation. One of the possible explanations of this gender gap is gender discrimination in the labour market, particularly in wages. Evidence with respect to gender discrimination in Pakistan’s labour market is welldocumented. Siddique, et al. (2006), Nasir and Nazli (2000), Siddique, et al. (1998) and Ashraf and Ashraf (1993) all confirm that men earn higher wages than women even after controlling for measurable characteristics affecting their productivity. These studies, however, analyse the gender wage gap by comparing the mean male/female wage. Studies which compare the gender wage gap at different points along the wage distribution are not available for Pakistan.

scholarly journals Male–Female Wage Gap and Informal Employment in Bangladesh: A Quantile Regression Approach

2019 ◽  
Vol 20 (1) ◽  
pp. 106-123 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mustafizur Rahman ◽  
Md. Al-Hasan
Keyword(s):  
Labour Market ◽  
Gender Wage Gap ◽  
Wage Gap ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Wage Distribution ◽  
Informal Employment ◽  
Wage Penalty ◽  
Conditional Quantile ◽  
Female Wage ◽  
Quantile Estimates

This article undertakes an examination of Bangladesh’s latest available Quarterly Labour Force Survey 2015–2016 data to draw in-depth insights on gender wage gap and wage discrimination in Bangladesh labour market. The mean wage decomposition shows that on average a woman in Bangladesh earns 12.2 per cent lower wage than a man, and about half of the wage gap can be explained by labour market discrimination against women. Quantile counterfactual decomposition shows that women are subject to higher wage penalty at the lower deciles of the wage distribution with the wage gap varying between 8.3 per cent and 19.4 per cent at different deciles. We have found that at lower deciles, a significant part of the gender wage gap is on account of the relatively larger presence of informal employment. Conditional quantile estimates further reveal that formally employed female workers earn higher wage than their male counterparts at the first decile but suffer from wage penalty at the top deciles. JEL: C21, J31, J46, J70

scholarly journals Gender Inequality in Labour Force Participation: An Empirical Investigation

2015 ◽  
Vol 54 (4I-II) ◽  
pp. 551-565 ◽  
Author(s):  
Muhammad Sabir
Keyword(s):  
Labour Market ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Gender Discrimination ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Participation Rate ◽  
Labour Force Participation ◽  
Gender Inequalities ◽  
Labour Force Participation Rate ◽  
Occupational Gender

Economic growth and development of the nations largely depend on the quantity and quality of their labour force. In Pakistan, a sizeable segment of population is considered as out of labour force. For instance, the overall labour force participation rate for the age 15 years and above remained roughly in the range of 49 percent to 53 percent during 1974-75 to 2012-13. This means that of the total population in 2012-13, aged 15 years and above, 53 percent is economically active or part of labour force whereas 47 percent is economically inactive or out of labour force. And more than 75 percent of the women population is considered as economically in-active. In addition, the labour market statistics show that a smaller proportion of women than men, age 15 years and above, are employed. The unemployment rate among women is higher than men. One of the possible explanations of this gender gap is gender discrimination in the labour market. In this context, this paper aims to analyse the behaviour of female and male in labour force participation by empirically investigating the determinants of labour force participation, and access to paid job for both female and male. It also shed light on occupational gender inequalities. It is believed that these types of analyses help designing better policies to increase employment opportunities for both females and males. They also facilitate suggesting various practical measures that can be incorporated in gender sensitised employment policies that in turn could lead towards greater labour force participation.

scholarly journals Services Trade: The Great Gender Equaliser?

2021 ◽  
pp. 001573252110118
Author(s):  
Louise Johannesson ◽  
Hildegunn Kyvik Nordås
Keyword(s):  
Comparative Advantage ◽  
Gender Wage Gap ◽  
Wage Gap ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Labour Force Participation ◽  
Formal Sector ◽  
Services Trade ◽  
Jel Codes ◽  
Formal Employment ◽  
Women In India

Standing at 24% in 2018, India’s female labour force participation is only half of the global average (48%). At the same time, India has one of the widest gender wage gaps in the world and women are less likely to be employed in the formal sector compared to men. This article focuses on how international trade affects relative wages and formal employment between men and women in India. Using the Revealed Symmetrical Comparative Advantage index, sectors of comparative advantage and disadvantage are identified and matched to Indian labour force surveys that contain information on sectoral employment and earnings. We find that sectors of comparative advantage in services have the lowest gender wage gap, with women earning 24% less than their male counterparts, while women in manufacturing earned on average 40% less than male workers. Using the Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition, we find that the total gender wage gap in sectors of comparative advantage in services are minor while it is quite substantial in manufacturing, regardless of comparative advantage status. The article concludes that services trade goes hand in hand with a smaller gender wage gap as women leverage their skills better in services than in manufacturing. JEL Codes: F16, F14

scholarly journals GENDER GAP INDEX FOR EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY

2020 ◽  
Vol 4 (9) ◽  
pp. 39-48
Author(s):  
Shweta Tewari ◽  
Rajshree Chouhan ◽  
Sanjeev
Keyword(s):  
Women Workers ◽  
Labour Market ◽  
Working Conditions ◽  
Unemployment Rate ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Participation Rate ◽  
Labour Force Participation ◽  
Work Place ◽  
Labour Force Participation Rate

Women account for nearly half of the human resources of a nation and play an important role in the socio-economic development of a country. In India, in spite of focus on women empowerment, condition of women at the work place is not very encouraging. Women often face greater barriers than men in terms of securing a decent jobs, wages and conducive working conditions. Provisions relating to women’s work were introduced in 1891, with amendment of the Factories Act, 1881. After independence, number of provisions has been made in the constitutions to protect the welfare of women workers. Number of protective legislations have also been made and implemented by the government for the interest of women workers. The basic objective behind implementation of these legislation are to provide equal and a decent level of remuneration, proper child care center , maternity relief and decent working conditions to women workers. Despite these constitutional and legislative arrangements to reduce gender gap, women in India are facing discrimination at work place and suffer from harassment. The present paper critically reviewed the effectiveness of government policies and legislations framed and enacted for the welfare of women workers. It also examines the gender dimensions of the trends in various aspects of labour market viz. labour force participation rate, workforce participation rate, unemployment rate and wage rate. An attempt has been made to capture the discrimination at work by computing Gender Gap Index using major indicators of labour market. For computing the index, data for the last four decades has been used. The analysis shows that there are gaps in effective enforcement of relevant laws and implementation of women responsive policies. The gender gap index for employment opportunities and the analysis of major employment indicators showed that gender gap is increasing in many aspects. Major indicators of employment such as Labour Force participation rate, Worker population ratio, Unemployment rate and wages now have larger gender gaps than before.

scholarly journals Gender wage gaps in Ghana: A comparison across different selection models

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Emmanuel Adu Boahen ◽  
Kwadwo Opoku
Keyword(s):  
Labour Market ◽  
Gender Wage Gap ◽  
Wage Gap ◽  
Selection Process ◽  
Sample Selection ◽  
Household Survey ◽  
Correction Method ◽  
Wage Gaps ◽  
Almost All ◽  
Selection Correction

The wage of an individual is observed only when he/she is employed. However, getting employment requires two decisions. First, an individual has to decide to participate in the labour market, and second, an employer must decide to hire that individual. Since female labour market participation often differs from that of men, and employers’ decisions to hire may also be influenced by gender, it is appropriate to account for this double selection process. This study uses the latest household survey in Ghana to estimate gender wage gaps by correcting for this double selection process. We find that the average total gender wage gap is positive and significant irrespective of the sample selection correction method used. Our results indicate that women on average receive lower wages than men. Irrespective of the type of selection method used, our findings suggest that almost all the wage gap is a result of differences in returns, with only a small part coming from differences in observables. We find that the gender wage gap is smaller among formal wage employees and the gap decreases as education level increases. Although our findings indicate a similar trend in the wage gap across all specifications, the magnitude of the gap is sensitive to the choice of the model. This points to the need to be cautious about the choice of sample selection correction used to analyse gender wage gaps.

Gender Wage Gap in Hospitality

2020 ◽  
pp. 109634802090942
Author(s):  
Xisco Oliver ◽  
Maria Sard
Keyword(s):  
Quantile Regression ◽  
Gender Discrimination ◽  
Gender Wage Gap ◽  
Wage Gap ◽  
Wage Distribution ◽  
Economic Sector ◽  
Skilled Workers ◽  
Unskilled Workers ◽  
Hospitality Sector ◽  
And Gender

This article analyzes the gender wage gap in the hospitality sector. First, it explores whether the gender wage gap is partly explained by the economic sector. Second, it measures how this gap changes across the wage distribution using quantile regression. Third, it decomposes the gender wage gap in the hospitality sector to distinguish which part can be explained by observed attributes and which part is explained by other factors (unobserved characteristics or gender discrimination). Methodologically, this article introduces the use of quantile regression to the analysis of the gender wage gap and its decomposition in the hospitality sector. The main findings are as follows. First, on average in the hospitality sector, wages (without taking into account worker skills) are below the overall average wages. However, if a deeper look is taken, this research reveals that unskilled workers are better paid in hospitality than in most of the other sectors. The opposite is true for skilled workers, since mid- and high-wage workers in the hospitality sector receive wages below their counterparts in other sectors. Second, the gender wage gap is particularly low in the hospitality sector and the gap changes across the wage distribution. Third, a large part of the gender wage gap in hospitality is not explained by worker or company characteristics. The segregation of women into worse-paid jobs and gender discrimination (or unobserved characteristics) seem to be the main sources of the gender wage gap.

scholarly journals Gendered integration? How recently arrived male and female refugees fare on the German labour market

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Zerrin Salikutluk ◽  
Katrin Menke
Keyword(s):  
Labour Market ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Market Integration ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Labour Force Participation ◽  
Market Outcomes ◽  
Refugee Women ◽  
Labour Market Participation ◽  
Employment Rates ◽  
Using Data

Objective: This paper examines gender differences in the labour market integration of newly arrived refugees in Germany. In particular, we focus on the heterogeneity in employment rates among female refugees. Background: Previous research has demonstrated that refugee women are disadvantaged on the labour market not only compared to their male counterparts, but also compared to other immigrant women. So far, however, little is known about the mechanisms that underlie the specific disadvantages of refugee women. Method: Using data from the IAB-BAMF-SOEP Survey of Refugees, we analyse the labour market participation of refugees who migrated to Germany between 2013 and 2017. To test our theoretical assumptions, we apply logistic regressions. Results: Our results show that compositional differences in qualifications, family structure, institutional support, and networks can partly explain the gender gap in labour force participation that disadvantage refugee women. We find substantial variation in the importance of different determinants for the labour market outcomes of men and women. Conclusion: As the gender gaps in labour supply could be fully attributed to the theoretical mechanisms offered in the literature, further research is needed to disentangle female refugees' employment behaviour.

scholarly journals The evolution of the gender wage gap in Colombia: 1994 and 2010

2020 ◽  
Vol 39 (81) ◽  
pp. 857-895 ◽  
Author(s):  
Luz Karime Abadía Alvarado ◽  
Sara De la Rica
Keyword(s):  
Gender Gap ◽  
Gender Wage Gap ◽  
Educational Achievement ◽  
Wage Gap ◽  
Sample Selection ◽  
Wage Distribution ◽  
The Public ◽  
Female Workers ◽  
Clear Glass ◽  
Wage Distributions

This paper studies the evolution of the gender wage gap in Colombia at different points of wage distributions. Using DiNardo, Fortin, and Lemieux’s (1996) decomposition, we find that the enormous increase in female workers’ educational achievement has helped to reduce the gender gap, mainly at the top of the wage distribution. However, this effect has been countered by the reduction in the proportion of female workers in the public sector and those with indefinite contracts. Moreover, using the Arellano et al. (2017) methodology, we estimate the adjusted gender wage gap whilst controlling for sample selection. In both analysed years, our main finding was a clear glass-ceiling pattern that was slightly reduced in 2010.

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