scholarly journals Foreign language attainment of children/adolescents with poor literacy skills: A systematic review and meta-analysis

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alexa von Hagen ◽  
Saskia Kohnen ◽  
Nicole Stadie
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Foreign Language ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Past Research ◽  
Individual Variability ◽  
Language Instruction ◽  
Literacy Skills ◽  
Foreign Language Instruction ◽  
Eligibility Criteria ◽  
Meta Analyses

This systematic review investigated how successful children/adolescents with poor literacy skills learn a foreign language compared to their peers with typical literacy skills. Moreover, we explored whether specific characteristics related to participants, foreign language instruction and assessment moderated scores on foreign language tests in this population. Overall, 16 studies with a total of 968 participants (poor reader/spellers: n = 404; control participants: n = 564) met eligibility criteria. Only studies focusing on English as a foreign language were available. Available data allowed for meta-analyses on 10 different measures of foreign language attainment. In addition to standard mean differences (SMDs), we computed natural logarithms of the ratio of coefficients of variation (CVRs) to capture individual variability between participant groups. Significant between-study heterogeneity, which could not be explained by moderator analyses, limited the interpretation of results. Although children/adolescents with poor literacy skills on average showed lower scores on foreign language phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and reading comprehension measures, their performance varied significantly more than that of control participants. Thus, it remains unclear to what extent group differences between the foreign language scores of children/adolescents with poor and typical literacy skills are representative of individual poor readers/spellers. Taken together, our results indicate that foreign language skills in children/adolescents with poor literacy skills are highly variable. We discuss limitations of past research that can guide future steps towards a better understanding of individual differences in foreign language attainment of children/adolescents with poor literacy skills.

scholarly journals Foreign Language Attainment of Children/Adolescents with Poor Literacy Skills: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alexa von Hagen ◽  
Saskia Kohnen ◽  
Nicole Stadie
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Foreign Language ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Past Research ◽  
Individual Variability ◽  
Language Instruction ◽  
Literacy Skills ◽  
Foreign Language Instruction ◽  
Eligibility Criteria ◽  
Meta Analyses

Abstract This systematic review investigated how successful children/adolescents with poor literacy skills learn a foreign language compared with their peers with typical literacy skills. Moreover, we explored whether specific characteristics related to participants, foreign language instruction, and assessment moderated scores on foreign language tests in this population. Overall, 16 studies with a total of 968 participants (poor reader/spellers: n = 404; control participants: n = 564) met eligibility criteria. Only studies focusing on English as a foreign language were available. Available data allowed for meta-analyses on 10 different measures of foreign language attainment. In addition to standard mean differences (SMDs), we computed natural logarithms of the ratio of coefficients of variation (CVRs) to capture individual variability between participant groups. Significant between-study heterogeneity, which could not be explained by moderator analyses, limited the interpretation of results. Although children/adolescents with poor literacy skills on average showed lower scores on foreign language phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and reading comprehension measures, their performance varied significantly more than that of control participants. Thus, it remains unclear to what extent group differences between the foreign language scores of children/adolescents with poor and typical literacy skills are representative of individual poor readers/spellers. Taken together, our results indicate that foreign language skills in children/adolescents with poor literacy skills are highly variable. We discuss the limitations of past research that can guide future steps toward a better understanding of individual differences in foreign language attainment of children/adolescents with poor literacy skills.

scholarly journals Efficacy and safety of instantaneous wave-free ratio in patients undergoing coronary revascularisation: protocol for a systematic review

BMJ Open ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 7 (9) ◽  
pp. e017868
Author(s):  
Joey S.W. Kwong ◽  
Sheyu Li ◽  
Wan-Jie Gu ◽  
Hao Chen ◽  
Chao Zhang ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Systematic Reviews ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Adverse Outcomes ◽  
Coronary Revascularisation ◽  
Eligibility Criteria ◽  
Registration Number ◽  
Collection Form ◽  
Randomised Controlled ◽  
Meta Analyses

IntroductionEffective selection of coronary lesions for revascularisation is pivotal in the management of symptoms and adverse outcomes in patients with coronary artery disease. Recently, instantaneous ‘wave-free’ ratio (iFR) has been proposed as a new diagnostic index for assessing the severity of coronary stenoses without the need of pharmacological vasodilation. Evidence of the effectiveness of iFR-guided revascularisation is emerging and a systematic review is warranted.Methods and analysisThis is a protocol for a systematic review of randomised controlled trials and controlled observational studies. Electronic sources including MEDLINE via Ovid, Embase, Cochrane databases and ClinicalTrials.gov will be searched for potentially eligible studies investigating the effects of iFR-guided strategy in patients undergoing coronary revascularisation. Studies will be selected against transparent eligibility criteria and data will be extracted using a prestandardised data collection form by two independent authors. Risk of bias in included studies and overall quality of evidence will be assessed using validated methodological tools. Meta-analysis will be performed using the Review Manager software. Our systematic review will be performed according to the guidance from the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement.Ethics and disseminationEthics approval is not required. Results of the systematic review will be disseminated as conference proceedings and peer-reviewed journal publication.Trial registration numberThis protocol is registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO), registration number CRD42017065460.

scholarly journals Evaluation of Preeclampsia Results after Use of Metformin in Gestation: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

2018 ◽  
Vol 40 (11) ◽  
pp. 713-721 ◽  
Author(s):  
Iramar Nascimento ◽  
Guilherme Dienstmann ◽  
Matheus de Souza ◽  
Raquel Fleig ◽  
Carla Hoffmann ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Treatment Time ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Cochrane Collaboration ◽  
Eligibility Criteria ◽  
Time Segment ◽  
Meta Analyses ◽  
The Cochrane Collaboration ◽  
Lower Correlation

Objective Does the use of metformin have an influence on the outcomes of preeclampsia (PE)? Sources of Data The descriptors pregnancy, metformin, treatment, and preeclampsia associated with the Boolean operators AND and OR were found in the MEDLINE, LILACS, Embase and Cochrane databases. A flowchart with exclusion criteria and inclusion strategy using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol, and eligibility criteria was used. Data were extracted regarding the type of study, the applied dosage, treatment time, segment, bias risks, and the Patient, Intervention, Comparison and Outcome (PICO) strategy to identify the quality of the study. Selection of Studies Total number of journals in the initial search (n = 824); exclusions from repeated articles on different search engines (n = 253); exclusions after reading the titles, when the title had no correlations with the proposed theme (n = 164); exclusions due to incompatibility with the criteria established in the methodological analysis (n = 185), exclusion of articles with lower correlation with the objective of the present study (n = 187); and final bibliographic selection (n = 35). Data Collection At first, a systematic review of the literature was performed. Subsequently, from the main selection, randomized and non-randomized trials with metformin that presented their results in absolute and relative numbers of PE outcomes were selected. The variables were treated statistically in the meta-analysis with the Review Manager software (RevMan), version 5.3. Copenhagen: Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Denmark in the Hovedistaden region. Synthesis of Data The study showed that metmorfin presented greater preventive effects for pregnancy-induced hypertension and was less effective for PE. Conclusion Metformin may gain place in preventive treatments for PE, once the dosages, the gestational age, and treatment time are particularly evaluated. A methodological strategy with an improved perspective of innovative and/or carefully progressive dosages during pregnancy to avoid side effects and the possibility of maternal-fetal risks is suggested.

scholarly journals Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis in Spine Surgery—How Good Are They in Methodological Quality? A Systematic Review

2020 ◽  
pp. 219256822090681 ◽  
Author(s):  
Muthu Sathish ◽  
Ramakrishnan Eswar
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Spine Surgery ◽  
Systematic Reviews ◽  
Methodological Quality ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Eligibility Criteria ◽  
Cochrane Database ◽  
Critical Flaw ◽  
Meta Analyses

Study Design: Systematic review. Objectives: To assess the methodological quality of systematic reviews and meta-analyses in spine surgery over the past 2 decades. Materials and Methods: We conducted independent and in duplicate systematic review of the published systematic reviews and meta-analyses between 2000 and 2019 from PubMed Central and Cochrane Database pertaining to spine surgery involving surgical intervention. We searched bibliographies to identify additional relevant studies. Methodological quality was evaluated with AMSTAR score and graded with AMSTAR 2 criteria. Results: A total of 96 reviews met the eligibility criteria, with mean AMSTAR score of 7.51 (SD = 1.98). Based on AMSTAR 2 criteria, 13.5% (n = 13) and 18.7% (n = 18) of the studies had high and moderate level of confidence of results, respectively, without any critical flaws. A total of 29.1% (n = 28) of the studies had at least 1 critical flaw and 38.5% (n = 37) of the studies had more than 1 critical flaw, so that their results have low and critically low confidence, respectively. Failure to analyze the conflict of interest of authors of primary studies included in review and lack of list of excluded studies with justification were the most common critical flaw. Regression analysis demonstrated that studies with funding and studies published in recent years were significantly associated with higher methodological quality. Conclusion: Despite improvement in methodological quality of systematic reviews and meta-analyses in spine surgery in current decade, a substantial proportion continue to show critical flaws. With increasing number of review articles in spine surgery, stringent measures must be taken to adhere to methodological quality by following PRISMA and AMSTAR guidelines to attain higher standards of evidence in published literature.

scholarly journals What components of smoking cessation care during pregnancy are implemented by health providers? A systematic review and meta-analysis

BMJ Open ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 9 (8) ◽  
pp. e026037 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gillian Sandra Gould ◽  
Laura Twyman ◽  
Leah Stevenson ◽  
Gabrielle R Gribbin ◽  
Billie Bonevski ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Smoking Cessation ◽  
Data Extraction ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Self Report ◽  
Health Providers ◽  
Eligibility Criteria ◽  
Reporting Practices ◽  
Registration Number ◽  
Meta Analyses

BackgroundPregnancy is an opportunity for health providers to support women to stop smoking.ObjectivesIdentify the pooled prevalence for health providers in providing components of smoking cessation care to women who smoke during pregnancy.DesignA systematic review synthesising original articles that reported on (1) prevalence of health providers’ performing the 5As (‘Ask’, ‘Advise’, ‘Assess’, ‘Assist’, ‘Arrange’), prescribing nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) and (2) factors associated with smoking cessation care.Data sourcesMEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL and PsycINFO databases searched using ‘smoking’, ‘pregnancy’ and ‘health provider practices’.Eligibility criteria for selecting studiesStudies included any design except interventions (self-report, audit, observed consultations and women’s reports), in English, with no date restriction, up to June 2017.ParticipantsHealth providers of any profession.Data extraction, appraisal and analysisData were extracted, then appraised with the Hawker tool. Meta-analyses pooled percentages for performing each of the 5As and prescribing NRT, using, for example, ‘often/always’ and ‘always/all’. Meta-regressions were performed of 5As for ‘often/always’.ResultsOf 3933 papers, 54 were included (n=29 225 participants): 33 for meta-analysis. Health providers included general practitioners, obstetricians, midwives and others from 10 countries. Pooled percentages of studies reporting practices ‘often/always’ were: ‘Ask’ (n=9) 91.6% (95% CI 88.2% to 95%); ‘Advise’ (n=7) 90% (95% CI 72.5% to 99.3%), ‘Assess’ (n=3) 79.2% (95% CI 76.5% to 81.8%), ‘Assist (cessation support)’ (n=5) 59.1% (95% CI 56% to 62.2%), ‘Arrange (referral)’ (n=6) 33.3% (95% CI 20.4% to 46.2%) and ‘prescribing NRT’ (n=6) 25.4% (95% CI 12.8% to 38%). Heterogeneity (I2) was 95.9%–99.1%. Meta-regressions for ‘Arrange’ were significant for year (p=0.013) and country (p=0.037).ConclusionsHealth providers ‘Ask’, ‘Advise’ and ‘Assess’ most pregnant women about smoking. ‘Assist’, ‘Arrange’ and ‘prescribing NRT’ are reported at lower rates: strategies to improve these should be considered.PROSPERO registration numberCRD42015029989.

scholarly journals Antioxidants as Adjuvants in Periodontitis Treatment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

2019 ◽  
Vol 2019 ◽  
pp. 1-24 ◽  
Author(s):  
Micaele Maria Lopes Castro ◽  
Nathallia Neves Duarte ◽  
Priscila Cunha Nascimento ◽  
Marcela Barauna Magno ◽  
Nathalia Carolina Fernandes Fagundes ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Conventional Therapy ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Clinical Parameter ◽  
Risk Of Bias ◽  
Eligibility Criteria ◽  
Clinical Attachment Loss ◽  
Nonsurgical Periodontal Therapy ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Meta Analyses

This systematic review with meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effect of antioxidants as an adjuvant in periodontitis treatment. The following databases were consulted: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane, Lilacs, OpenGrey, and Google Scholar. Based on the PICO strategy, the inclusion criteria comprised interventional studies including periodontitis patients (participants) treated with conventional therapy and antioxidants (intervention) compared to patients treated only with conventional therapy (control) where the periodontal response (outcome) was evaluated. The risk of bias was evaluated using the Cochrane RoB tool (for randomized studies) and ROBINS-I tool (for nonrandomized studies). Quantitative data were analyzed in five random effects meta-analyses considering the following periodontal parameters: clinical attachment loss (CAL), plaque index (PI), gingival index (GI), bleeding on probing (BOP), and probing depth (PD). After all, the level of certainty was measured with the Grading of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) tool. Among the 1884 studies identified, only 15 interventional studies were according to the eligibility criteria and they were included in our review. From them, 4 articles presented a high risk of bias. The meta-analysis showed a statistically significant difference for CAL (SMD 0.29 (0.04, 0.55), p=0.03, I2=13%), PI (SMD 0.41 (0.18, 0.64), p=0.0005, I2=47%), and BOP (SMD 0.55 (0.27, 0.83), p=0.0001, I2=0%). The GRADE tool showed a moderate to high certainty in the quality of evidence depending on the clinical parameter and antioxidants used. These results suggest that the use of antioxidants is an adjunct approach to nonsurgical periodontal therapy which may be helpful in controlling the periodontal status.

Prevalence of white spot caries lesions in primary teeth in preschool children: systematic review and meta-analysis

2021 ◽  
Vol 17 ◽  
Author(s):  
Priscila H Campos ◽  
Thais Gimenez ◽  
Rafael S Rocha ◽  
Taciana MF Caneppele ◽  
Renata O Guaré ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Preschool Children ◽  
Low Income ◽  
Primary Teeth ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
White Spot ◽  
White Spot Lesion ◽  
Eligibility Criteria ◽  
Meta Analyses ◽  
Caries Lesions

Background: The first clinically detectable stage of caries lesion is a non-cavitated white spot lesion (WSL). The detection of early stages of caries lesions allows non-invasive management by fluoride usage, oral hygiene and diet control. There is a lack of information in the literature regarding the prevalence of these caries lesions in preschool children, which is important especially for public health strategies. Objective: The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review with meta-analysis to verify the WSLs prevalence in primary teeth of preschool children. Methods: A literature search with MEDLINE/PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Open Gray databases was conducted. Included studies fulfilled the eligibility criteria. Meta-analyses were performed using random effects model, for prevalence of pooled WSLs and subgroups analyses. Results: The search strategy identified 4922 potentially relevant articles, with final inclusion of 16 studies. The pooled prevalence of WSLs in primary teeth was 14.0% (95% CI: 8.0-24.0), without publication bias (p=0.2668). For subgroup analyses, an increase in WSLs prevalence for children of low-income economy (24.0%; 95% CI: 20.0-28.0), for age >31 months (22.0%; 95% CI: 12.0-37.0), for validated visual criteria assessment (20.0%; 95% CI: 11.0-33.0), and for tactile assessment with ball-ended probe (26.0%; 95% CI: 11-50.0) were detected. Conclusion: It is suggested that the prevalence of WSLs in primary teeth of preschool children increases in countries with low income economy, with age greater than 31 months as the texture was assessed with visual validated criteria or ball-end probe.

scholarly journals Effects of Training Programs on Decision-Making in Youth Team Sports Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ana Filipa Silva ◽  
Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo ◽  
Hugo Sarmento ◽  
José Afonso ◽  
Filipe Manuel Clemente
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Decision Making ◽  
Training Programs ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Team Sports ◽  
Decision Time ◽  
Data Sources ◽  
Control Groups ◽  
Eligibility Criteria ◽  
Meta Analyses

BackgroundThe use of dedicated training programs for improving decision-making (DM) in team sports players has grown in the last several years. Approaches such as imagery training, video-based training, or game-based drills are some of the interventions used in youth players in order to improve DM. However, no systematic reviews or meta-analyses have been conducted to summarize the main evidence regarding the effects of these programs on the players and identify the magnitude of the effects compared to control groups.ObjectiveThis systematic review (with meta-analysis) was conducted to assess the effects of training programs on the DM of youth team sports players.Data SourcesThe data sources utilized were PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science.Study eligibility criteriaThe criteria included the following: (i) youth (≤ 18 years old) team sports players with no restriction on sex or competitive level; (ii) players subjected to training programs to develop DM; (iii) control groups; (iv) pre–post outcomes related to tactical behavior, technical execution, reaction, and decision time; and (v) controlled trials.ResultsThe database search initially identified 2497 titles. From these, six articles were eligible for the systematic review and meta-analysis. The results showed a significant beneficial effect of DM interventions on tactical behavior (ES = 1.12; p = 0.035; I2 = 80.0%; Egger’s test p = 0.066), whereas no significant effect of DM interventions on technical execution was found (ES = 0.74; p = 0.180; I2 = 69.1%; Egger’s test p = 0.873).ConclusionThe DM interventions were significantly effective in improving tactical behavior in youth team sports players independently from the number of sessions to which players were exposed. In addition, DM interventions were significantly effective in improving technical execution. However, the results should be carefully interpreted due to the heterogeneity of the articles’ overall methodological quality. Future DM interventions should consider using combined approaches that allow players to develop both tactical behavior and technical execution.

scholarly journals A systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis of prognostic factors for foot ulceration in people with diabetes: the international research collaboration for the prediction of diabetic foot ulcerations (PODUS)

2015 ◽  
Vol 19 (57) ◽  
pp. 1-210 ◽  
Author(s):  
Fay Crawford ◽  
Genevieve Cezard ◽  
Francesca M Chappell ◽  
Gordon D Murray ◽  
Jacqueline F Price ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Risk Assessment ◽  
Individual Patient Data ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Data Sets ◽  
Eligibility Criteria ◽  
Foot Ulceration ◽  
History Of ◽  
Meta Analyses ◽  
Assessment Procedures

BackgroundAnnual foot risk assessment of people with diabetes is recommended in national and international clinical guidelines. At present, these are consensus based and use only a proportion of the available evidence.ObjectivesWe undertook a systematic review of individual patient data (IPD) to identify the most highly prognostic factors for foot ulceration (i.e. symptoms, signs, diagnostic tests) in people with diabetes.Data sourcesStudies were identified from searches of MEDLINE and EMBASE.Review methodsThe electronic search strategies for MEDLINE and EMBASE databases created during an aggregate systematic review of predictive factors for foot ulceration in diabetes were updated and rerun to January 2013. One reviewer applied the IPD review eligibility criteria to the full-text articles of the studies identified in our literature search and also to all studies excluded from our aggregate systematic review to ensure that we did not miss eligible IPD. A second reviewer applied the eligibility criteria to a 10% random sample of the abstract search yield to check that no relevant material was missed. This review includes exposure variables (risk factors) only from individuals who were free of foot ulceration at the time of study entry and who had a diagnosis of diabetes mellitus (either type 1 or type 2). The outcome variable was incident ulceration.ResultsOur search identified 16 cohort studies and we obtained anonymised IPD for 10. These data were collected from more than 16,000 people with diabetes worldwide and reanalysed by us. One data set was kept for independent validation. The data sets contributing IPD covered a range of temporal, geographical and clinical settings. We therefore selected random-effects meta-analysis, which assumes not that all the estimates from each study are estimates of the same underlying true value, but rather that the estimates belong to the same distribution. We selected candidate variables for meta-analysis using specific criteria. After univariate meta-analyses, the most clinically important predictors were identified by an international steering committee for inclusion in the primary, multivariable meta-analysis. Age, sex, duration of diabetes, monofilaments and pulses were considered most prognostically important. Meta-analyses based on data from the entire IPD population found that an inability to feel a 10-g monofilament [odds ratio (OR) 3.184, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.654 to 3.82], at least one absent pedal pulse (OR 1.968, 95% CI 1.624 to 2.386), a longer duration of a diagnosis of diabetes (OR 1.024, 95% CI 1.011 to 1.036) and a previous history of ulceration (OR 6.589, 95% CI 2.488 to 17.45) were all predictive of risk. Female sex was protective (OR 0.743, 95% CI 0.598 to 0.922).LimitationsIt was not possible to perform a meta-analysis using a one-step approach because we were unable to procure copies of one of the data sets and instead accessed data via Safe Haven.ConclusionsThe findings from this review identify risk assessment procedures that can reliably inform national and international diabetes clinical guideline foot risk assessment procedures. The evidence from a large sample of patients in worldwide settings show that the use of a 10-g monofilament or one absent pedal pulse will identify those at moderate or intermediate risk of foot ulceration, and a history of foot ulcers or lower-extremity amputation is sufficient to identify those at high risk. We propose the development of a clinical prediction rule (CPR) from our existing model using the following predictor variables: insensitivity to a 10-g monofilament, absent pedal pulses and a history of ulceration or lower-extremities amputations. This CPR could replace the many tests, signs and symptoms that patients currently have measured using equipment that is either costly or difficult to use.Study registrationThis study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42011001841.FundingThe National Institute for Health Research Health Technology Assessment programme.

scholarly journals A meta-analysis of effectiveness studies on computer technology-supported language learning

ReCALL ◽  
2013 ◽  
Vol 25 (2) ◽  
pp. 165-198 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maja Grgurović ◽  
Carol A. Chapelle ◽  
Mack C. Shelley
Keyword(s):  
Foreign Language ◽  
Language Learning ◽  
Computer Technology ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Language Instruction ◽  
Effect Sizes ◽  
Foreign Language Instruction ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Rigorous Research ◽  
Research Designs

AbstractWith the aim of summarizing years of research comparing pedagogies for second/foreign language teaching supported with computer technology and pedagogy not-supported by computer technology, a meta-analysis was conducted of empirical research investigating language outcomes. Thirty-seven studies yielding 52 effect sizes were included, following a search of literature from 1970 to 2006 and screening of studies based on stated criteria. The differences in research designs required subdivision of studies, but overall results favored the technology-supported pedagogy, with a small, but positive and statistically significant effect size. Second/foreign language instruction supported by computer technology was found to be at least as effective as instruction without technology, and in studies using rigorous research designs the CALL groups outperformed the non-CALL groups. The analyses of instructional conditions, characteristics of participants, and conditions of the research design did not provide reliable results because of the small number of effect sizes representing each group. The meta-analysis results provide an empirically-based response to the questions of whether or not technology-supported pedagogies enhance language learning, and the process of conducting the meta-analysis pointed to areas in research methodology that would benefit from attention in future research.

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