Co-valorization of agro-industry by-products: effect of citrus oil on the quality of soap derived from palm fatty acid distillate and spent bleaching clay

This study deals with the co-valorization of spent bleaching clay (SBC) and palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) –by-products of palm oil refining plants- through soap manufacture. Obtained SBC and PFAD samples show differing acidity and saponification values depending on fatty acids and acylglycerols content. Soaps are prepared using the stoichiometric amount of NaOH, under the varying proportion of water introduced through the basic solution. The mixing SBC and PFAD (ratio 1:3), the reaction completion (92.5%) is surprisingly higher than expected, indicating a synergistic effect on the course of the saponification reaction. The water is also a critical parameter, 30% w/w of added water allowing the highest yield. When testing for cleaning efficiency the products having the highest soap content, those from individual by-products give a low microbial count reduction after hand-washing (30-37%). But a much better score (74%) is obtained when using SBC:PFAD soap mixtures. This improvement could be due to abrasive and absorption effects of the clay, combined with the high soap content. The acceptability through a panel test is good for all soaps when formulated with citrus oil. The most active product corresponds to a SBC:PFAD ratio close to the production one in refining plants. Therefore these results provide an easy way for co-valorising these by-products, after further optimizing the saponification reaction in this complex triphasic medium (aqueous solution, oil, clay).

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Factors Affecting the Quality of Biodiesel from Palm Fatty Acid Distillate at Palm Oil Refining Plant

Biointerface Research in Applied Chemistry ◽

10.33263/briac126.81448151 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 12 (6) ◽

pp. 8144-8151

Keyword(s):

Fatty Acid ◽

Palm Oil ◽

Fatty Acid Content ◽

Oil Refining ◽

Esterification Reaction ◽

Factors Affecting ◽

Palm Fatty Acid Distillate ◽

Refining Plant ◽

Fatty Acid Distillate

A study on factors affecting biodiesel quality of agricultural by-products, namely palm oil derived using palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), collected from the Oleen Palm Oil industrial refining plant. This PFAD showed free fatty acid content and a saponification value of 88.4 % and 204 mg KOH/g, respectively. An acid catalyst was successfully used to produce biodiesel in the esterification reaction, and a 97.11% conversion to biodiesel based on the European Standard EN 14214:2003 was achieved under the conditions (PFAD to methanol molar ratio 1:3.71 with 1.834 % H2SO4 catalyzed at 121 °C for 15 minutes). Overall, this novel process achieved highly enhanced FAME (95.82% to 97.31%) with a significantly increased reaction time (10 to 30 minutes) and catalyst requirements (1.834 % H2SO4).

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UV-Curable Urethane Acrylate Resin from Palm Fatty Acid Distillate

Polymers ◽

10.3390/polym10121374 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 10 (12) ◽

pp. 1374 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Kim Teo ◽

Aziz Hassan ◽

Seng Gan

Keyword(s):

Fatty Acid ◽

Ultra Violet ◽

Oil Refining ◽

Urethane Acrylate ◽

Uv Curable ◽

Coating Application ◽

Hardness Tester ◽

Palm Fatty Acid Distillate ◽

American Society ◽

Fatty Acid Distillate

Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), is a by-product of the crude palm oil refining process. It comprises mainly of free fatty acids—around 45% palmitic and 33% oleic acids—as the major components. Ultra-violet (UV) curable urethane acrylate (UA) oligomers could be synthesized from PFAD, by the following procedure. A hydroxyl terminated macromer was first prepared by reacting PFAD with a mixture of isophthalic acid, phthalic anhydride, neopentagylcol (NPG), and pentaerythritol. The macromer was then reacted with 2-hydroxylethylacrylate (2HEA) and toluene diisocynate (TDI) to generate a resin, containing acrylate side chains for UV curable application. A series of UA resins were prepared by using 15, 25, 45, 55, and 70% of PFAD, respectively. The UA resin has Mw in the range of 3,200 to 27,000. They could be cured by UV irradiation at an intensity of 225 mW/cm2. Glass transition temperature (Tg) of the cured film was measured by differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), and hardness of the film was determined by a pendulum hardness tester, according to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)4366. The resins were used in a wood-coating application. All of the cured films showed good adhesion, hardness, and chemical resistance except for the one using the 70% PFAD, which did not cure properly.

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Composition and Nutritional Value of Acid Oils and Fatty Acid Distillates Used in Animal Feeding

Animals ◽

10.3390/ani11010196 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (1) ◽

pp. 196

Author(s):

Elisa Varona ◽

Alba Tres ◽

Magdalena Rafecas ◽

Stefania Vichi ◽

Ana C. Barroeta ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Fatty Acid Composition ◽

Fatty Acid ◽

Acid Composition ◽

Nutritional Value ◽

Oil Refining ◽

Analytical Control ◽

Dietary Energy ◽

Feed Ingredients ◽

Animal Feeding ◽

By Products

Acid oils (AO) and fatty acid distillates (FAD) are oil refining by-products rich in free fatty acids. The objective of this study is their characterization and the identification of their sources of variability so that they can be standardized to improve their use as feed ingredients. Samples (n=92) were collected from the Spanish market and the MIU value (sum of moisture, insoluble impurities, and unsaponifiable matter), lipid classes, fatty acid composition, and tocol content were analyzed. Their composition was highly variable even between batches from the same producer. As FAD originated from a distillation step, they showed higher free fatty acid amounts (82.5 vs 57.0 g/100 g, median values), whereas AO maintained higher proportions of moisture, polymers, tri-, di-, and monoacylglycerols. Overall, the MIU value was higher in AO (2.60–18.50 g/100 g in AO vs 0.63-10.44 g/100 g in FAD), with most of the contents of insoluble impurities being higher than those in the guidelines. Tocol and fatty acid composition were influenced by the crude oil’s botanical origin. The calculated dietary energy values were, in general, higher for AO and decreased when a MIU correction factor was applied. The analytical control and standardization of these by-products is of the outmost importance to revalorize them as feed ingredients.

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