scholarly journals The Emergence and Initial Impact of Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease (SCTLD) in the United States Virgin Islands

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marilyn E. Brandt ◽  
Rosmin S. Ennis ◽  
Sonora S. Meiling ◽  
Joseph Townsend ◽  
Kathryn Cobleigh ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Coral Cover ◽  
The United States ◽  
Virgin Islands ◽  
Disease Prevalence ◽  
Tissue Loss ◽  
Coral Tissue ◽  
Focal Lesions ◽  
Stony Coral ◽  
Coral Communities ◽  
The U.S

Coral communities in the Caribbean face a new and deadly threat in the form of the highly virulent multi-host stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD). In late January of 2019, a disease with signs and characteristics matching that of SCTLD was found affecting a reef off the coast of St. Thomas in the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI). Identification of its emergence in the USVI provided the opportunity to document the initial evolution of its spatial distribution, coral species susceptibility characteristics, and its comparative impact on coral cover at affected and unaffected coral reef locations. Re-assessments at sentinel sites and long-term monitoring locations were used to track the spread of the disease, assess species affected, and quantify its impact. The disease was initially limited to the southwest of St. Thomas for several months, then spread around the island and to the neighboring island of St. John to the east. Differences in disease prevalence among species were similar to reports of SCTLD from other regions. Highly affected species included Colpophyllia natans, Eusmilia fastigiata, Montastraea cavernosa, Orbicella spp., and Pseudodiploria strigosa. Dendrogyra cylindrus and Meandrina meandrites were also highly affected but showed more variability in disease prevalence, likely due to initial low abundances and the rapid loss of colonies due to disease. Siderastrea spp. were less affected and showed lower prevalence. Species previously reported as unaffected or data deficient that were found to be affected by SCTLD included Agaricia spp., Madracis spp., and Mycetophyllia spp. We also observed multi-focal lesions at SCTLD-affected sites on colonies of Porites astreoides, despite that poritids have previously been considered low or not susceptible to SCTLD. Loss of coral cover due to acute tissue loss diseases, which were predominantly SCTLD, was significant at several monitoring locations and was more impactful than previous mass bleaching events at some sites. There are no signs that the USVI SCTLD outbreak is abating, therefore it is likely that this disease will become widespread across the U.S. Caribbean and British Virgin Islands in the near future.

scholarly journals Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease biomarker bacteria identified in corals and overlying waters using a rapid field-based sequencing approach

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Cynthia C. Becker ◽  
Marilyn Brandt ◽  
Carolyn A. Miller ◽  
Amy Apprill
Keyword(s):  
Coral Disease ◽  
The United States ◽  
Virgin Islands ◽  
Tissue Loss ◽  
Coral Tissue ◽  
Rna Sequences ◽  
Disease Biomarker ◽  
Stony Coral ◽  
Ribosomal Rna Sequences ◽  
Reef Tract

AbstractStony Coral Tissue Loss Disease (SCTLD) is a devastating disease. Since 2014, it has spread along the entire Florida Reef Tract, presumably via a water-borne vector, and into the greater Caribbean. It was first detected in the United States Virgin Islands (USVI) in January 2019. To more quickly identify disease biomarker microbes, we developed a rapid pipeline for microbiome sequencing. Over a span of 10 days we collected, processed, and sequenced coral tissue and near-coral seawater microbiomes from diseased and apparently healthy Colpophyllia natans, Montastraea cavernosa, Meandrina meandrites and Orbicella franksi. Analysis of the resulting bacterial and archaeal 16S ribosomal RNA sequences revealed 25 biomarker amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) enriched in diseased tissue. These biomarker ASVs were additionally recovered in near-coral seawater (within 5 cm of coral surface), a potential recruitment zone for pathogens. Phylogenetic analysis of the biomarker ASVs belonging to Vibrio, Arcobacter, Rhizobiaceae, and Rhodobacteraceae revealed relatedness to other coral disease-associated bacteria and lineages novel to corals. Additionally, four ASVs (Algicola, Cohaesibacter, Thalassobius and Vibrio) were exact sequence matches to microbes previously associated with SCTLD. This work represents the first rapid coral disease sequencing effort and identifies biomarkers of SCTLD that could be targets for future SCTLD research.

scholarly journals A rapid spread of the Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease outbreak in the Mexican Caribbean

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lorenzo Alvarez-Filip ◽  
Nuria Estrada-Saldívar ◽  
Esmeralda Pérez-Cervantes ◽  
Ana Molina-Hernández ◽  
Francisco J. Gonzalez-Barrios
Keyword(s):  
Coral Disease ◽  
Disease Outbreak ◽  
Disease Prevalence ◽  
Tissue Loss ◽  
Coral Tissue ◽  
Similar Species ◽  
Western Atlantic ◽  
Stony Coral ◽  
Mexican Caribbean ◽  
Coral Communities

Caribbean reef corals have experienced unprecedented declines from climate change, anthropogenic stressors and infectious diseases in recent decades. Since 2014 a highly lethal, new disease, called stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD), has impacted many species in Florida. During the summer of 2018 we noticed an anomalously high disease prevalence affecting different coral species in the northern portion of the Mexican Caribbean. We assessed the severity of this outbreak in 2018/2019 using the AGRRA coral protocol to survey 82 reef sites across the Mexican Caribbean. Then, using a subset of 14 sites we detailed information from before the outbreak (2016/2017) to explore the consequences of the disease on the condition and composition of coral communities. Our findings show that the disease outbreak has already spread across the entire region, affecting similar species (with similar disease patterns) to those previously described for Florida. However, we observed a great variability in prevalence and tissue mortality that was not attributable to any geographical gradient. Using long-term data, we determined that there is no evidence of such high coral disease prevalence anywhere in the region before 2018, which suggests that the entire Mexican Caribbean (~450 km) was afflicted by the disease within a few months. The analysis of sites that contained pre-outbreak information showed that this event considerably increased coral mortality and severely changed the structure of coral communities in the region. Given the high prevalence and lethality of this disease, and the high number of susceptible species, we encourage reef researchers, managers and stakeholders across the Western Atlantic to accord it the highest priority for the near future.

scholarly journals A rapid spread of the stony coral tissue loss disease outbreak in the Mexican Caribbean

PeerJ ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 7 ◽  
pp. e8069 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lorenzo Alvarez-Filip ◽  
Nuria Estrada-Saldívar ◽  
Esmeralda Pérez-Cervantes ◽  
Ana Molina-Hernández ◽  
Francisco J. González-Barrios
Keyword(s):  
Coral Species ◽  
Disease Outbreak ◽  
Disease Prevalence ◽  
Tissue Loss ◽  
Coral Tissue ◽  
Similar Species ◽  
Western Atlantic ◽  
Stony Coral ◽  
Mexican Caribbean ◽  
Coral Communities

Caribbean reef corals have experienced unprecedented declines from climate change, anthropogenic stressors and infectious diseases in recent decades. Since 2014, a highly lethal, new disease, called stony coral tissue loss disease, has impacted many reef-coral species in Florida. During the summer of 2018, we noticed an anomalously high disease prevalence affecting different coral species in the northern portion of the Mexican Caribbean. We assessed the severity of this outbreak in 2018/2019 using the AGRRA coral protocol to survey 82 reef sites across the Mexican Caribbean. Then, using a subset of 14 sites, we detailed information from before the outbreak (2016/2017) to explore the consequences of the disease on the condition and composition of coral communities. Our findings show that the disease outbreak has already spread across the entire region by affecting similar species (with similar disease patterns) to those previously described for Florida. However, we observed a great variability in prevalence and tissue mortality that was not attributable to any geographical gradient. Using long-term data, we determined that there is no evidence of such high coral disease prevalence anywhere in the region before 2018, which suggests that the entire Mexican Caribbean was afflicted by the disease within a few months. The analysis of sites that contained pre-outbreak information showed that this event considerably increased coral mortality and severely changed the structure of coral communities in the region. Given the high prevalence and lethality of this disease, and the high number of susceptible species, we encourage reef researchers, managers and stakeholders across the Western Atlantic to accord it the highest priority for the near future.

scholarly journals Diversity and Disease: The Effects of Coral Diversity on Prevalence and Impacts of Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease in Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sophia V. Costa ◽  
Stephanie J. Hibberts ◽  
Danielle A. Olive ◽  
Kayla A. Budd ◽  
Alexys E. Long ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Species Diversity ◽  
Virgin Islands ◽  
Disease Prevalence ◽  
Tissue Loss ◽  
Coral Tissue ◽  
Caribbean Region ◽  
Epidemic Disease ◽  
Stony Coral ◽  
High Species Diversity ◽  
Disease Present

Stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD) was first observed in St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) in January 2019. This disease affects at least 20 scleractinian coral species; however, it is not well understood how reef diversity affects its spread or its impacts on reef ecosystems. With a large number of susceptible species, SCTLD may not follow the diversity-disease hypothesis, which proposes that high species diversity is negatively correlated with disease prevalence. Instead, SCTLD may have a higher prevalence and a greater impact on reefs with higher coral diversity. To test this, in 2020 we resampled 54 sites around St. Thomas previously surveyed in 2017 or 2019 by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Coral Reef Monitoring Program. These sites represented a variety of species diversity values [categorized into poor (<12 spp. rich.) and rich (≥12 spp. rich.)] in multiple disease zones (Endemic: disease present ≥ 9 months; Epidemic: disease present 2–6 months; Control and Emergent: disease present no disease/<2 months). We hypothesized that, contrary to the diversity-disease hypothesis, sites with high species diversity (as measured by species richness or Simpson’s index) would have higher disease prevalence within the epidemic zone, and that high species diversity sites would have a greater impact from disease within the endemic zone. Results indicated a significant positive relationship between disease prevalence and diversity in the epidemic zone, and a similar trend in the endemic zones. Additionally, a negative relationship was seen between pre-outbreak diversity and loss of diversity and coral cover within the endemic zone. This supports the hypothesis that higher diversity predicts greater disease impact and suggests that SCTLD does not follow the diversity-disease hypothesis. Within the epidemic zone, the species with the highest SCTLD prevalence were Dendrogyra cylindrus, Colpophyllia natans, and Meandrina meandrites, while in the endemic zone, Diploria labyrinthiformis, Pseudodiploria strigosa, Montastraea cavernosa, and Siderastrea siderea had the highest SCTLD prevalence. Understanding the relationship between species diversity and SCTLD will help managers predict the most vulnerable reefs, which should be prioritized within the USVI and greater Caribbean region.

scholarly journals Effects of the Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease Outbreak on Coral Communities and the Benthic Composition of Cozumel Reefs

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nuria Estrada-Saldívar ◽  
Blanca A. Quiroga-García ◽  
Esmeralda Pérez-Cervantes ◽  
Omar O. Rivera-Garibay ◽  
Lorenzo Alvarez-Filip
Keyword(s):  
Coral Cover ◽  
Coastal Development ◽  
Tissue Loss ◽  
Coral Tissue ◽  
Coral Mortality ◽  
Benthic Assemblages ◽  
Stony Coral ◽  
Coral Communities ◽  
The Caribbean ◽  
Benthic Composition

In the Caribbean, disease outbreaks have emerged as significant drivers of coral mortality. Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease (SCTLD) is a novel white plague-type disease that was first reported off the Florida coast in 2014. This disease affects >20 coral species and is spreading rapidly throughout the Caribbean. In December 2018, SCTLD reached southwestern (SW) Cozumel, one of the healthiest reef systems in the Caribbean. In this study, we integrate data from multiple survey protocols conducted between July 2018 and April 2020 to track the progression of the outbreak in SW Cozumel and to quantify the impacts of SCTLD on coral communities and the benthic composition of reefs. Given that the SCTLD outbreak coincided with a period of prolonged thermal stress that concluded in widespread coral bleaching in autumn 2019, we also investigated whether this event further exacerbated coral mortality. Our findings show that SCTLD spread throughout SW Cozumel in only 2 months and reached a peak after only 5 months. By the summer of 2019, most of the afflicted corals were already dead. Species of the families Meandrinidae, Faviinae, and Montastraeidae showed 33–95% mortality. The widespread coral die-off caused an overall loss of 46% in coral cover followed by a rapid increase of algae cover across all surveyed reefs that persisted until at least April 2020. In November 2019, more than 15% of surveyed coral colonies were bleached. However, we did not find that bleaching further increased coral mortality at either the colony or the community level, which suggests that the coral communities were able to recover from this event despite still being affected by the disease. In conclusion, SCTLD is radically changing the ecology of coral reefs by decimating the populations of several key reef-builders and reconfiguring the benthic assemblages. The actions needed to restore coral populations have to be accompanied by stringent controls related to the effects of climate change, coastal development, and wastewater treatment to improve coral conditions and ecosystem resilience.

scholarly journals A rapid spread of the Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease outbreak in the Mexican Caribbean

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lorenzo Alvarez-Filip ◽  
Nuria Estrada-Saldívar ◽  
Esmeralda Pérez-Cervantes ◽  
Ana Molina-Hernández ◽  
Francisco J. Gonzalez-Barrios
Keyword(s):  
Coral Disease ◽  
Disease Outbreak ◽  
Disease Prevalence ◽  
Tissue Loss ◽  
Coral Tissue ◽  
Similar Species ◽  
Western Atlantic ◽  
Stony Coral ◽  
Mexican Caribbean ◽  
Coral Communities

Caribbean reef corals have experienced unprecedented declines from climate change, anthropogenic stressors and infectious diseases in recent decades. Since 2014 a highly lethal, new disease, called stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD), has impacted many species in Florida. During the summer of 2018 we noticed an anomalously high disease prevalence affecting different coral species in the northern portion of the Mexican Caribbean. We assessed the severity of this outbreak in 2018/2019 using the AGRRA coral protocol to survey 82 reef sites across the Mexican Caribbean. Then, using a subset of 14 sites we detailed information from before the outbreak (2016/2017) to explore the consequences of the disease on the condition and composition of coral communities. Our findings show that the disease outbreak has already spread across the entire region, affecting similar species (with similar disease patterns) to those previously described for Florida. However, we observed a great variability in prevalence and tissue mortality that was not attributable to any geographical gradient. Using long-term data, we determined that there is no evidence of such high coral disease prevalence anywhere in the region before 2018, which suggests that the entire Mexican Caribbean (~450 km) was afflicted by the disease within a few months. The analysis of sites that contained pre-outbreak information showed that this event considerably increased coral mortality and severely changed the structure of coral communities in the region. Given the high prevalence and lethality of this disease, and the high number of susceptible species, we encourage reef researchers, managers and stakeholders across the Western Atlantic to accord it the highest priority for the near future.

scholarly journals Prevalence of Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease at El Seco, a Mesophotic Reef System off Vieques Island, Puerto Rico

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stacey M. Williams ◽  
Jorge García-Sais ◽  
Jorge Sabater-Clavell
Keyword(s):  
Puerto Rico ◽  
Coral Reef ◽  
Coral Cover ◽  
Coral Disease ◽  
Tissue Loss ◽  
Coral Tissue ◽  
Stony Coral ◽  
Reef System ◽  
Coral Communities ◽  
Mesophotic Reef

Mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs) are ecologically and functionally vital, as they are Essential Fish Habitats that function as refugia for corals and sponges of shallow-water reefs. Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease (SCTLD) is a relatively new lethal coral disease, first affecting coral reefs in Florida and has now spread through most of the Caribbean. SCTLD was observed in Puerto Rico in December 2019 in Culebra Island. Since then, SCTLD has appeared along the east coast of Puerto Rico, affecting primarily shallow reefs in San Juan, Culebra and Vieques Island, and Fajardo. During late June and July 2020, four mesophotic reef habitats were surveyed at El Seco (off Vieques Island), on the southeast coast of Puerto Rico. SCTLD was observed at colonized pavement (CPRT – 23–30 m), bank coral reef (BCR – 35–40 m), patch coral reef (PCR – 36–42 m), and rhodolith (Rhodo – 40–50 m) habitats. The mean percent substrate cover by sessile-benthic categories varied significantly between habitats (PERMANOVA, p < 0.001), with a higher mean (± SE) coral cover at BCR (26.95 ± 5.60%), followed by PCR (12.88 ± 3.88%). SCTLD was detected in all habitats, but the disease prevalence was significantly higher at BCR, ranging from 9.70 to 21.13% of colonies infected (Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA, p < 0.007). Even though PCR habitats exhibited less coral cover, SCTLD prevalence was still elevated ranging from 6.66 to 15.07%. The deepest record of SCTLD at El Seco was 40.9 m. The majority (∼98%) of the corals infected with the disease were from the Orbicella complex spp. (faveolata/franksi). However, there were other infected species, such as Agaricia grahamae, A. lamarcki, Montastraea cavernosa, and Porites astreoides. As seen in the surveys conducted in 2011 and 2020, the loss of coral cover allows for the emergence of other benthic “detractors,” such as peyssonnelids, specifically Ramicrusta spp. Ramicrusta spp., an aggressive encrusting red alga known to take over available space and overgrow corals, significantly increased its substrate cover at the impacted reefs. Therefore, the severity and virulence of SCTLD will most likely have severe and long-lasting negative impacts on the coral communities at El Seco mesophotic reef system.

scholarly journals Changing Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease Dynamics Through Time in Montastraea cavernosa

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
Author(s):  
Greta Aeby ◽  
Blake Ushijima ◽  
Erich Bartels ◽  
Cory Walter ◽  
Joseph Kuehl ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Common Species ◽  
Disease Prevalence ◽  
Tissue Loss ◽  
Coral Tissue ◽  
Disease Dynamics ◽  
Western Atlantic ◽  
Fort Lauderdale ◽  
Stony Coral ◽  
Montastraea Cavernosa ◽  
Lesion Morphology

Stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD) is affecting corals across the Western Atlantic and displays species-specific and regional differences in prevalence, incidence, degree of mortality, and lesion morphology. We examined two Florida sites with different temporal histories of disease emergence; Fort Lauderdale where SCTLD is endemic and the Lower Florida Keys where SCTLD has recently emerged. Our objectives were to (1) assess the potential impact of SCTLD on overall reef condition by surveying reefs in each region, (2) in a single common species, Montastraea cavernosa, examine differences in SCTLD prevalence, colony mortality, and lesion morphology in each region, and (3) look for differences in contagion by conducting transmission experiments using lesions from each region. Reef surveys found sites in both regions had low coral cover, high algae cover, and similar coral species composition. SCTLD prevalence was higher in the Lower Keys than at Fort Lauderdale and two of the common species, M. cavernosa and S. siderea at Fort Lauderdale were dominated by smaller colonies (<5 cm) whereas larger colonies occurred in the Lower Keys. Tagged M. cavernosa SCTLD-affected colonies were followed for 2 years at one site in each region. In both years, Fort Lauderdale colonies showed declining disease prevalence, low colony mortality, and disease lesions were mainly bleached spots lacking tissue loss. In contrast, Lower Keys colonies tagged in the first year maintained 100% disease prevalence with high mortality, and disease lesions were predominantly tissue loss with no bleached edges. However, SCTLD dynamics changed, with year two tagged colonies showing declining disease prevalence, low mortality, and lesion morphology switched to a mixture of bleached polyps and tissue loss with or without bleached edges. Lesion morphology on colonies was a significant predictor of amount of tissue loss. Aquaria studies found the rate of SCTLD transmission using lesions from the different zones (emergent and endemic) were similar. Our study highlights that differences in coral mortality from SCTLD are not necessarily linked to host species, lesion morphology is reflective of subsequent rate of mortality, and disease dynamics change through time on reefs where the disease has newly emerged.

scholarly journals 3D Photogrammetry Reveals Dynamics of Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease (SCTLD) Lesion Progression Across a Thermal Stress Event

2020 ◽  
Vol 7 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sonora Meiling ◽  
Erinn M. Muller ◽  
Tyler B. Smith ◽  
Marilyn E. Brandt
Keyword(s):  
Thermal Stress ◽  
Disease Ecology ◽  
The United States ◽  
Tissue Loss ◽  
Coral Tissue ◽  
Critical Parameters ◽  
Bleaching Event ◽  
Stony Coral ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Loss Rates

Stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD) was first observed in the United States Virgin Islands in January 2019 on a reef at Flat Cay off the island of St. Thomas. A year after its emergence, the disease had spread to several reefs around St. Thomas causing significant declines in overall coral cover. Rates of tissue loss are an important metric in the study of coral disease ecology, as they can inform many aspects of etiology such as disease susceptibility and resistance among species, and provide critical parameters for modeling the effects of disease among heterogenous reef communities. The present study quantified tissue loss rates attributed to SCTLD among six abundant reef building species (Colpophyllia natans, Montastraea cavernosa, Diploria labyrinthiformis, Pseudodiploria strigosa, Orbicella annularis, and Porites astreoides). Field-based 3D models of diseased corals, taken approximately weekly, indicated that the absolute rates of tissue loss from SCTLD slowed through time, corresponding with the accumulation of thermal stress that led to mass bleaching. Absolute tissue loss rates were comparable among species prior to the bleaching event but diverged during and remained different after the bleaching event. Proportional tissue loss rates did not vary among species or through time, but there was considerable variability among M. cavernosa colonies. SCTLD poses a significant threat to reefs across the Caribbean due to its persistence through time, wide range of susceptible coral species, and unprecedented tissue loss rates. Intervention and management efforts should be increased during and immediately following thermal stress events in order maximize resource distribution when disease prevalence is decreased.

scholarly journals Association of butterflyfishes and stony coral tissue loss disease in the Florida Keys

Coral Reefs ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 39 (6) ◽  
pp. 1581-1590
Author(s):  
Kara R. Noonan ◽  
Michael J. Childress
Keyword(s):  
Coral Disease ◽  
Florida Keys ◽  
Time Lapse ◽  
Reef Fishes ◽  
Disease Prevalence ◽  
Tissue Loss ◽  
Coral Tissue ◽  
Individual Species ◽  
Stony Coral ◽  
Surface Areas

AbstractSince 2014, stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD) has rapidly spread throughout the Florida reef tract infecting and killing dozens of coral species. Previous studies have found that corallivorous fishes, such as butterflyfishes, are positively correlated with coral disease prevalence at both local and regional scales. This study investigates the association of SCTLD infection and butterflyfish abundance and behaviors on ten reefs in the middle Florida Keys. Divers conducted video surveys of reef fish abundance and disease prevalence in June 2017, 2018, and 2019; before, during, and after the outbreak of SCTLD infections. SCTLD prevalence increased from 3.2% in 2017 to 36.9% in 2018 and back to 2.7% in 2019. Butterflyfish abundances also showed a similar pattern with a twofold increase in abundance in 2018 over abundances in 2017 and 2019. To better understand the association of individual species of butterflyfishes and diseased corals, 60 coral colonies (20 healthy, 20 diseased, 20 recently dead) were tagged and monitored for butterflyfish activity using both diver-based AGGRA fish counts and 1-h time-lapse videophotography collected in the summers of 2018 and 2019. All reef fishes were more abundant on corals with larger surface areas of live tissue, but only the foureye butterflyfish preferred corals with larger surface areas of diseased tissues. Estimates of association indicate that foureye butterflyfish were found significantly more on diseased corals than either healthy or recently dead corals when compared with the other species of butterflyfishes. Foureye butterflyfish were observed to feed directly on the SCTLD line of infection, while other butterflyfish were not. Furthermore, association of foureye butterflyfish with particular diseased corals decreased from 2018 to 2019 as the SCTLD infections disappeared. Our findings suggest that foureye butterflyfish recruit to and feed on SCTLD-infected corals which may influence the progression and/or transmission of this insidious coral disease.

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