Transferrable Principles to Revolutionize Drinking Water Governance in First Nation Communities in Canada

There are analogous challenges when it comes to the management and provision of health services and drinking water in First Nations reserves in Canada; both represent human rights and both involve complex and multijurisdictional management. The purpose of this study is to translate the tenets of Jordan’s Principle, a child-first principle regarding health service provision, within the broader context of First Nation drinking water governance in order to identify avenues for positive change. This project involved secondary analysis of data from 53 semi-structured, key informant (KI) interviews across eight First Nation communities in western Canada. Data were coded according to the three principles of: provision of culturally inclusive management, safeguarding health, and substantive equity. Failure to incorporate Traditional Knowledge, water worldviews, and holistic health as well as challenges to technical management were identified as areas currently restricting successful drinking water management. Recommendations include improved infrastructure, increased resources (both financial and non-financial), in-community capacity building, and relationship building. To redress the inequities currently experienced by First Nations when it comes to management of and access to safe drinking water, equitable governance structures developed from the ground up and embedded in genuine relationships between First Nations and Canadian federal government agencies are required.

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Drinking Water Consumption Patterns: An Exploration of Risk Perception and Governance in Two First Nations Communities

Sustainability ◽

10.3390/su12176851 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (17) ◽

pp. 6851

Author(s):

Neal Spicer ◽

Brenda Parlee ◽

Molly Chisaakay ◽

Doug Lamalice

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Risk Perception ◽

First Nations ◽

Water Consumption ◽

Local Community ◽

Indigenous Communities ◽

Bottled Water ◽

Consumption Patterns ◽

First Nation ◽

Individual Risk

Many Indigenous communities across Canada suffer from the lack of access to clean drinking water; ensuring individuals and communities have safe water to drink either from their home or from their local environment requires the consideration of multiple factors including individual risk perception. In collaboration with local leaders, semi-structured interviews (n = 99) were conducted over a two-year period in the Dene Tha’ First Nation and Kátł’odeeche First Nation to unpack the issue of risk perception and its meaning to local community members. These local metrics of risk perception including smell, taste, safety, health fears and level of concern were then used to explore patterns in other data on drinking water consumption patterns and bottled water use. The results are consistent with previous research related to water insecurity and indicate that both communities consume more bottled water than the average Canadian. Results also varied by jurisdiction; those in Alberta indicated much higher levels of concern and a greater degree of bottled water consumption.

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“We Don’t Drink the Water Here”: The Reproduction of Undrinkable Water for First Nations in Canada

Water ◽

10.3390/w11051079 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 11 (5) ◽

pp. 1079 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

Warrick Baijius ◽

Robert J. Patrick

Keyword(s):

Political Ecology ◽

First Nations ◽

Water Resource Management ◽

Water Governance ◽

Case Study Research ◽

First Nation ◽

Governance Capacity ◽

Water Problem ◽

Source Water Protection ◽

Current Water

First Nation communities in Canada are disproportionately plagued by undrinkable water and insufficient household sanitation. In addition, water resource management in First Nation communities has long been a technocratic and scientific mission controlled by state-led authorities. There has been limited engagement of First Nations in decision-making around water management and water governance. As such, problems associated with access to drinkable water and household sanitation are commonly positioned as hydrological or environmental problems (flood or drought) to be fixed by technical and engineering solutions. This apolitical reading has been criticized for not addressing the root cause of the First Nation water problem, but instead, of reproducing it. In this paper, an approach using political ecology will tease out key factors contributing to the current water problem in many First Nation communities. Using case study research set in source water protection planning, this paper explains how persistent colonial practices of the state continue to reproduce undrinkable water and insufficient household sanitation. Solutions to this ‘water problem’ require greater attention to First Nations water governance capacity and structures.

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Inorganic contaminants in Canadian First Nation community water systems

Journal of Water and Health ◽

10.2166/wh.2020.185 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 18 (5) ◽

pp. 728-740

Author(s):

Kaycie Lane ◽

Benjamin F. Trueman ◽

Javier Locsin ◽

Graham A. Gagnon

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

First Nations ◽

Water Systems ◽

Sampling Frequency ◽

First Nation ◽

Inorganic Contaminants ◽

Community Water Systems ◽

Community Water ◽

Regulatory Guidelines ◽

Sampling Procedures

Abstract While previous Canadian studies have examined microbiological water quality in First Nations, there is little published information on inorganic contaminants. In Atlantic Canada, the lead, manganese, and arsenic content of First Nations’ drinking water has been measured for more than a decade, but the data have not been analyzed comprehensively. These contaminants are linked with health problems, and high levels in drinking water are a cause for concern. We examined 12 years of data from 47 First Nation community water systems to identify systems experiencing difficulties meeting sampling frequency or regulatory guidelines. While most contaminant concentrations were below guideline values, we identified elevated concentrations and issues with sampling frequency. No system met both sampling frequency requirements – a minimum of one sample per year per analyte – and regulatory guidelines. Exceedance rates for lead, manganese, and arsenic were high in some systems. Moreover, current sampling procedures for lead specify that taps be flushed prior to sampling, which is known to underestimate lead exposure. We find that a switch to random daytime sampling would at least sometimes yield higher estimates of lead at the tap. Our analysis demonstrates the need for increased monitoring and updated sampling procedures to better characterize inorganic contaminant occurrence in First Nations.

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Perceptions of Water Quality in First Nations Communities: Exploring the Role of Context

Nature and Culture ◽

10.3167/nc.2015.100205 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 10 (2) ◽

pp. 225-249 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Julia Baird ◽

Ryan Plummer ◽

Diane Dupont ◽

Blair Carter

Keyword(s):

Water Quality ◽

Drinking Water ◽

Social Context ◽

First Nations ◽

Water Governance ◽

Social Contexts ◽

Adaptive Governance ◽

The Social ◽

The Relationship

Drinking water quality problems are persistent and challenging for many of Canada's First Nations communities despite past and ongoing initiatives to improve the situation. These initiatives have often been employed without consideration for understanding the social context that is so critical for the development of appropriate water governance approaches. This article offers insights about the relationship between institutions for water governance and perceptions in three Ontario First Nations communities. Similarities among communities were particularly noticeable for gender where women valued water more highly and were less content with water quality. The findings presented here highlight potential impacts of displacement, gender, and water sources on perceptions of water quality and offer initial insights that indicate the need for further research to consider the potential for adaptive governance approaches that enhance fit between problem and social contexts.

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Water Insecurity in Ontario First Nations: An Exploratory Study on Past Interventions and the Need for Indigenous Water Governance

Water ◽

10.3390/w13050717 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (5) ◽

pp. 717

Author(s):

Rachel Arsenault

Keyword(s):

First Nations ◽

Exploratory Study ◽

Water Governance ◽

Water Security ◽

Indigenous Communities ◽

First Nation ◽

Indigenous Research ◽

Security Challenges ◽

Challenges And Opportunities ◽

Indigenous Perspectives

In 2018, I began an exploratory study involving fourteen Ontario First Nation participants that examined some First Nation water security challenges and opportunities. In acknowledgment that many of the government assessments, reports, and investments to date have failed, this study aims to determine the causes of the water crisis as well as potential solutions by sharing Indigenous perspectives and recommendations on water governance and security. During the study, Indigenous participants were asked interview questions regarding their water and wastewater systems, their historical and current water security conditions, and if they had recommendations for achieving water security in First Nations. The analysis from these interviews demonstrated that there were ten different themes for water security and insecurity in First Nation communities as well as a set of four recommendations shared by the fourteen participants. The participant recommendations are: (1) that Traditional Knowledge (TK) and Indigenous laws be included in water security initiatives and water governance; (2) that provincial and federal governments work with Indigenous communities on their water security challenges and opportunities; (3) that First Nation leadership develops and implements community water protection plans; (4) that Indigenous communities establish an oversight committee or body for monitoring tourist ventures and extractive development projects such as mining on their territories. This paper will also discuss how an Indigenous research paradigm can be applied during the research process to ensure that the information is captured from the Indigenous perspectives of the participants.

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Community Capacity Building for Energy Sovereignty: A First Nation Case Study

Sustainability in Environment ◽

10.22158/se.v3n2p177 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 3 (2) ◽

pp. 177

Author(s):

Roopa Rakshit ◽

Chander Shahi ◽

M. A. (Peggy) Smith ◽

Adam Cornwell

Keyword(s):

Capacity Building ◽

First Nations ◽

Power Transmission ◽

Indigenous Communities ◽

Energy Sector ◽

First Nation ◽

Effective Capacity ◽

Community Capacity Building ◽

Community Based Research

Ontario’s 2017 Long-Term Energy Plan has identified the Wataynikaneyap Power transmission line as a priority project. The line will connect seventeen remote, off-grid, diesel-dependent First Nation communitiesin northwestern Ontario, Canada to the provincial grid. The province’s current energy mandates and policies commit program dollars to build the human capacities of the seventeen Wataynikaneyap Power communities through the Remote Electrification Readiness Program (RERP). This effort is part of growing interests, changing perspectives, and focus in the continuum of provincial strategies to encourage First Nations to meet their emerging energy transitional needs and to partake in the energy sector.Capacity-building challenges are unique in the Wataynikaneyap Power communities because they experience higher levels of poverty and socio economic inequities, are subjected to antiquated and unjust institutional structures, are following a legal and self-governance status, and are maintaining distinct cultures and ways of life.Capacity building as a concept is wide-ranging and offers a multitude of expressions and interpretations. For the Wataynikaneyap Power communities, capacity building has offered the opportunity to exert their inherent rights and to increase their participation in local and regional energy planning and development.This community-based research is derived from grassroots ethnographic community observation. Through a case study of one of the Wataynikaneyap Power communities, Poplar Hill First Nation, the paper will: a) elucidate a working example of an Indigenous capacity-building process through the RERP; b) demonstrate that capacity development is a key building block for self-determination and to achieve energy sovereignty; and c) illustrate the broader scope of learnings and pathways to effective capacity building for Indigenous communities that will drive energy development initiatives and actions in Canada’s expansive energy sector.

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Co-management of Traditional Foods: Opportunities and Limitations for Food Security in Northern First Nation Communities

ARCTIC ◽

10.14430/arctic69363 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 72 (4) ◽

pp. 360-380

Author(s):

Ainslie Cruickshank ◽

Geranda Notten ◽

Sonia Wesche ◽

Kate Ballegooyen ◽

Geraldine Pope

Keyword(s):

Food Security ◽

First Nations ◽

Situational Factors ◽

Relationship Building ◽

First Nation ◽

Community Food Security ◽

Structured Interviews ◽

Traditional Foods ◽

Food Species ◽

Parks Canada

Traditional foods that First Nations peoples harvest or gather from the land remain critically important for achieving and sustaining food security for many communities. In Canada’s North, land claim agreements include provisions for First Nations to participate in the governance of their traditional territories, including the co-management of important traditional (wild-harvested) food species. Because such agreements only specify the broad contours of co-management governance, their actual functioning evolves out of a complex interplay among the co-managing organizations over the course of time. This paper aims to deepen our understanding of how First Nations communities can enhance food security as participants in co-management. Our study connects research on food security with research on co-management and is the first to analyze how First Nations can improve their food security by influencing decision-making that affects traditional foods through co-management arrangements. Following a succinct review of the Indigenous food security and co-management literatures, we analyze the experiences of Kluane First Nation in enhancing community food security through the co-management of its traditional territory with Yukon Government and Parks Canada, interpreting the data in light of the theories and evidences offered by research on co-management. The analysis of data collected from semi-structured interviews and from First Nations and government resources shows that, while the co-management system is imperfect, it does offer a mechanism through which First Nations can exert influence on decisions that affect their food security. The three key themes emerging from the excerpts confirm the importance of co-management as an evolutionary and long-term process, in which trust- and relationship-building are ongoing activities that are fundamental to beneficial collaboration involving the sharing of information and power. The analysis also highlights the role of context, or situational factors, in facilitating or hindering collaboration.

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Multi-Barrier Protection of Drinking Water Systems in Ontario: A Comparison of First Nation and Non-First Nation Communities

International Indigenous Policy Journal ◽

10.18584/iipj.2012.3.3.8 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 3 (3) ◽

Cited By ~ 11

Author(s):

Dan Walters ◽

Nicholas Spence ◽

Kayli Kuikman ◽

Budhendra Singh

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

First Nations ◽

Risk Evaluation ◽

Water Systems ◽

First Nation ◽

Design System ◽

Risk Level ◽

Regulatory Regime ◽

Service Standards ◽

Drinking Water Systems

In some way or another, all levels of government in Canada and First Nations share responsibility to implement multi-barrier protection of drinking water. The goal is to protect water from source to tap to minimize risk so that people have access to adequate and safe drinking water. The federal government has committed to assist First Nations achieve comparable levels of service standards available to non-First Nation communities. However, several recent reports on the status of drinking water services standards in First Nations indicate that people in these communities often experience greater health risks than those living off reserves. Using the federal drinking water risk evaluation guidelines, the capacities of First Nations and non-First Nations in Ontario to implement multi-barrier protection of their drinking water systems are compared. The Risk Level Evaluation Guidelines for Water and Wastewater Treatment in First Nation Communities rank drinking water systems as low, medium, or high risk based on information about source water, system design, system operation, reporting, and operator expertise. The risk evaluation scores for First Nations drinking water systems were obtained from Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. A survey based on the federal Risk Level Evaluation Guidelines was sent to non-First Nation communities throughout Ontario with 54 communities responding. The capacity among First Nations was variable throughout the province, whereas all of the municipalities were in the low risk category, even small and northern non-First Nation community water systems. It is clear that the financial and technological capacity issues should be addressed regardless of the legislative and regulatory regime that is established. The current governance and management structure does not appear to be significantly reducing the gap in service standards despite financial investment. Exploring social or other underlying determinants of risk may provide alternative solutions to the ongoing water crisis in many First Nations.

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“Is it Safe?” Risk Perception and Drinking Water in a Vulnerable Population

International Indigenous Policy Journal ◽

10.18584/iipj.2012.3.3.9 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 3 (3) ◽

Cited By ~ 12

Author(s):

Nicholas Spence ◽

Dan Walters

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Risk Perception ◽

First Nations ◽

Policy Issue ◽

Large Degree ◽

First Nation ◽

Aboriginal Peoples ◽

Accessibility Issues ◽

New Perspective ◽

Research And Policy

Access to safe drinking water is a pressing social policy issue globally. Despite the milestones reached in this area of Canadian public health, marginalized and vulnerable populations, including those founded on racialized identity, such as First Nations, continue to be plagued by accessibility issues. This work sheds new perspective on the issue, arguing for a research and policy focus that is inclusive of risk perception. A model of risk perception of drinking water is developed and tested for First Nations on reserve in Canada using the 2001 Aboriginal Peoples Survey. It is shown that the analytical use of racialized identity advances understanding of risk perception and the environment (water). Moreover, a large degree of heterogeneity within the First Nation population across a number of social determinants of risk perception illustrates the shortcomings of framing the issue in a simplistic manner (First Nation population versus general population). Implications for risk research, including risk communication & management, and policy are provided.

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Policy Forum: Implementing the Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation Property Tax System—Opportunities, Challenges, and Lessons Learned

Canadian Tax Journal/Revue fiscale canadienne ◽

10.32721/ctj.2021.69.3.pf.mccue ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 69 (3) ◽

pp. 857-872

Author(s):

Kate McCue ◽

Bill McCue

Keyword(s):

First Nations ◽

Property Tax ◽

Lessons Learned ◽

First Nation ◽

Property Taxes ◽

Tax System ◽

Fiscal Management ◽

Local Services ◽

Policy Forum ◽

Do So

In 2018, the Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation (GIFN) implemented a First Nation property tax system under the First Nations Fiscal Management Act (FMA)—one of the earliest First Nations in Ontario to do so. Implementation of a property tax system gave GIFN an opportunity to improve funding for and expand local services, and provide a more equitable sharing of local service costs between cottagers leasing First Nation land and the First Nation. Key challenges encountered when implementing the property tax system were building consensus around the need for a tax system, building an appropriate administrative infrastructure, carrying out property assessments, and professionals lacking knowledge of First Nation property tax. These challenges, however, presented opportunities to create a knowledge base around property taxation within GIFN, among cottage leaseholders, and in the wider community. Key lessons learned were (1) start as soon as possible; (2) First Nations Tax Commission support and standards are important; (3) staff training is important; (4) communicate early and often; (5) hold open houses; (6) local services are more than garbage collection; (7) property taxes do not harm lease rates or cottage sales; (8) educate lawyers, real estate agents, and other professionals; (9) startup costs were significant; (10) coordinate laws and standards with provincial variations; (11) modernize systems; and (12) utilize other parts of the FMA.

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