Analysis of the surface mass balance for deglacial climate simulations

Abstract. A realistic simulation of the surface mass balance (SMB) is essential for simulating past and future ice-sheet changes. As most state-of-the-art Earth system models (ESMs) are not capable of realistically representing processes determining the SMB, most studies of the SMB are limited to observations and regional climate models and cover the last century and near future only. Using transient simulations with the Max Planck Institute ESM in combination with an energy balance model (EBM), we extend previous research and study changes in the SMB and equilibrium line altitude (ELA) for the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets throughout the last deglaciation. The EBM is used to calculate and downscale the SMB onto a higher spatial resolution than the native ESM grid and allows for the resolution of SMB variations due to topographic gradients not resolved by the ESM. An evaluation for historical climate conditions (1980–2010) shows that derived SMBs compare well with SMBs from regional modeling. Throughout the deglaciation, changes in insolation dominate the Greenland SMB. The increase in insolation and associated warming early in the deglaciation result in an ELA and SMB increase. The SMB increase is caused by compensating effects of melt and accumulation: the warming of the atmosphere leads to an increase in melt at low elevations along the ice-sheet margins, while it results in an increase in accumulation at higher levels as a warmer atmosphere precipitates more. After 13 ka, the increase in melt begins to dominate, and the SMB decreases. The decline in Northern Hemisphere summer insolation after 9 ka leads to an increasing SMB and decreasing ELA. Superimposed on these long-term changes are centennial-scale episodes of abrupt SMB and ELA decreases related to slowdowns of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) that lead to a cooling over most of the Northern Hemisphere.

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Analysis of the Surface Mass Balance for Deglacial Climate Simulations

10.5194/tc-2020-173 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Marie-Luise Kapsch ◽

Uwe Mikolajewicz ◽

Florian Andreas Ziemen ◽

Christian B. Rodehacke ◽

Clemens Schannwell

Keyword(s):

Mass Balance ◽

Ice Sheet ◽

Greenland Ice Sheet ◽

Meridional Overturning Circulation ◽

Balance Model ◽

Surface Mass Balance ◽

Equilibrium Line Altitude ◽

Data Set ◽

Surface Mass ◽

Climate Conditions

Abstract. Most studies analyzing changes in the surface mass balance (SMB) of the Greenland ice sheet are limited to the last century, due to the availability of observations and the computational limitations of regional climate modeling. Using transient simulations with a comprehensive Earth System Model (ESM) we extend previous research and study changes in the SMB and equilibrium line altitude (ELA) for deglacial climate conditions. An energy balance model (EBM) is used to downscale atmospheric processes. It determines the SMB on higher spatial resolution and allows to resolve SMB variations due to topographic gradients not resolved by the ESM. An evaluation for historical climate conditions (1980–2010) shows that derived SMBs compare well with SMBs from regional modeling. Throughout the deglaciation changes in insolation dominate the Greenland SMB: 1) The increase in insolation and associated warming early in the deglaciation result in an ELA and SMB increase. The SMB increase is caused by compensating effects of melt and accumulation, as a warmer atmosphere precipitates more. After 13 ka before present (BP) melt begins to dominate and the SMB decreases. 2) The decline in insolation after 9 ka BP leads to an increasing SMB and decreasing ELA. Superimposed on these long-term changes are episodes of significant SMB/ELA decreases, related to slowdowns of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) that lead to cooling over most of the Northern Hemisphere. To study associated changes in the ice sheet geometry, the SMB data set is made available to the ice sheet modeling community.

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Surface mass balance model intercomparison for the Greenland ice sheet

The Cryosphere Discussions ◽

10.5194/tcd-6-3999-2012 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 6 (5) ◽

pp. 3999-4036 ◽

Cited By ~ 11

Author(s):

C. L. Vernon ◽

J. L. Bamber ◽

J. E. Box ◽

M. R. van den Broeke ◽

X. Fettweis ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Mass Balance ◽

Ice Sheet ◽

Greenland Ice Sheet ◽

Balance Model ◽

Surface Mass Balance ◽

Equilibrium Line Altitude ◽

Surface Mass ◽

Process Representation ◽

Model Average

Abstract. Four simulations of the surface mass balance (SMB) of the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) are compared over the period 1960–2008. Total SMB estimates for the GrIS are in agreement within 34% of the four model average when a common ice sheet mask is used. When models' native land/ice/sea masks are used this spread increases to 57%. Variation in the spread of components of SMB from their mean: runoff 42% (29% native masks), precipitation 20% (24% native masks), melt 38% (74% native masks), refreeze 83% (142% native masks) show, with the exception of refreeze, a similar level of agreement once a common mask is used. Previously noted differences in the models' estimates are partially explained by ice sheet mask differences. Regionally there is less agreement, suggesting spatially compensating errors improve the integrated estimates. Modelled SMB estimates are compared with in situ observations from the accumulation and ablation areas. Agreement is higher in the accumulation area than the ablation area suggesting relatively high uncertainty in the estimation of ablation processes. Since the mid-1990s each model estimates a decreasing annual SMB. A similar period of decreasing SMB is also estimated for the period 1960–1972. The earlier decrease is due to reduced precipitation with runoff remaining unchanged, however, the recent decrease is associated with increased precipitation, now more than compensated for by increased melt driven runoff. Additionally, in three of the four models the equilibrium line altitude has risen since the mid-1990s, reducing the accumulation area at a rate of approximately 60 000 km2 per decade due to increased melting. Improving process representation requires further study but the use of a single accurate ice sheet mask is a logical way to reduce uncertainty among models.

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Scoring Antarctic surface mass balance in climate models to refine future projections

10.5194/tc-2019-240 ◽

2019 ◽

Author(s):

Tessa Gorte ◽

Jan T. M. Lenaerts ◽

Brooke Medley

Keyword(s):

Mass Balance ◽

Temporal Variability ◽

Climate Models ◽

Ice Sheet ◽

Snow Accumulation ◽

Historical Period ◽

Surface Mass Balance ◽

Max Planck ◽

Data Set ◽

Surface Mass

Abstract. An increase of Antarctic Ice Sheet (AIS) surface mass balance (SMB) has the potential to mitigate future sea level rise that is driven by enhanced solid ice discharge from the ice sheet. For climate models, AIS SMB provides a difficult challenge, as it is highly susceptible to spatial, seasonal and interannual variability. Here we use a reconstructed data set of AIS snow accumulation as "true" observational data, to evaluate the ability of the CMIP5 and CMIP6 suites of models in capturing the mean, trends, temporal variability and spatial variability in SMB over the historical period (1850–2000). This gives insight into which models are most reliable for predicting SMB into the future. We found that the best scoring models included the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's GISS models and the Max Planck Institute far Meteorologie's MPI models. Using a scoring system based on SMB magnitude, trend, and temporal variability across the AIS, as well as spatial SMB variability, we selected a subset of the top 10th percentile of models to refine 21st century (2000–2100) AIS-integrated SMB projections to 2295 ± 1222 Gt per year 2382 ± 1316 Gt per year, and 2648 ± 1530 Gt per year for Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 2.6, 4.5, and 8.5, respectively. We also reduced the spread in AIS-integrated mean SMB by 78 %, 75 %, and 78 % in RCPs 2.6, 4.5, and 8.5, respectively.

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Surface mass balance model intercomparison for the Greenland ice sheet

The Cryosphere ◽

10.5194/tc-7-599-2013 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 7 (2) ◽

pp. 599-614 ◽

Cited By ~ 108

Author(s):

C. L. Vernon ◽

J. L. Bamber ◽

J. E. Box ◽

M. R. van den Broeke ◽

X. Fettweis ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Mass Balance ◽

Ice Sheet ◽

Greenland Ice Sheet ◽

Balance Model ◽

Surface Mass Balance ◽

Equilibrium Line Altitude ◽

Surface Mass ◽

Process Representation ◽

Model Average ◽

The Impact

Abstract. A number of high resolution reconstructions of the surface mass balance (SMB) of the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) have been produced using global re-analyses data extending back to 1958. These reconstructions have been used in a variety of applications but little is known about their consistency with each other and the impact of the downscaling method on the result. Here, we compare four reconstructions for the period 1960–2008 to assess the consistency in regional, seasonal and integrated SMB components. Total SMB estimates for the GrIS are in agreement within 34% of the four model average when a common ice sheet mask is used. When models' native land/ice/sea masks are used this spread increases to 57%. Variation in the spread of components of SMB from their mean: runoff 42% (29% native masks), precipitation 20% (24% native masks), melt 38% (74% native masks), refreeze 83% (142% native masks) show, with the exception of refreeze, a similar level of agreement once a common mask is used. Previously noted differences in the models' estimates are partially explained by ice sheet mask differences. Regionally there is less agreement, suggesting spatially compensating errors improve the integrated estimates. Modelled SMB estimates are compared with in situ observations from the accumulation and ablation areas. Agreement is higher in the accumulation area than the ablation area suggesting relatively high uncertainty in the estimation of ablation processes. Since the mid-1990s each model estimates a decreasing annual SMB. A similar period of decreasing SMB is also estimated for the period 1960–1972. The earlier decrease is due to reduced precipitation with runoff remaining unchanged, however, the recent decrease is associated with increased precipitation, now more than compensated for by increased melt driven runoff. Additionally, in three of the four models the equilibrium line altitude has risen since the mid-1990s, reducing the accumulation area at a rate of approximately 60 000 km2 per decade due to increased melting. Improving process representation requires further study but the use of a single accurate ice sheet mask is a logical way to reduce uncertainty among models.

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Coupling of climate models and ice sheet models by surface mass balance gradients: application to the Greenland Ice Sheet

The Cryosphere ◽

10.5194/tc-6-255-2012 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 6 (2) ◽

pp. 255-272 ◽

Cited By ~ 45

Author(s):

M. M. Helsen ◽

R. S. W. van de Wal ◽

M. R. van den Broeke ◽

W. J. van de Berg ◽

J. Oerlemans

Keyword(s):

Mass Balance ◽

Climate Models ◽

Climate Model ◽

Regional Climate ◽

Ice Sheet ◽

Greenland Ice Sheet ◽

Lapse Rate ◽

Surface Mass Balance ◽

Surface Mass ◽

Temperature Lapse Rate

Abstract. It is notoriously difficult to couple surface mass balance (SMB) results from climate models to the changing geometry of an ice sheet model. This problem is traditionally avoided by using only accumulation from a climate model, and parameterizing the meltwater run-off as a function of temperature, which is often related to surface elevation (Hs). In this study, we propose a new strategy to calculate SMB, to allow a direct adjustment of SMB to a change in ice sheet topography and/or a change in climate forcing. This method is based on elevational gradients in the SMB field as computed by a regional climate model. Separate linear relations are derived for ablation and accumulation, using pairs of Hs and SMB within a minimum search radius. The continuously adjusting SMB forcing is consistent with climate model forcing fields, also for initially non-glaciated areas in the peripheral areas of an ice sheet. When applied to an asynchronous coupled ice sheet – climate model setup, this method circumvents traditional temperature lapse rate assumptions. Here we apply it to the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS). Experiments using both steady-state forcing and glacial-interglacial forcing result in realistic ice sheet reconstructions.

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High resolution (1 km) positive degree-day modelling of Greenland ice sheet surface mass balance, 1870–2012 using reanalysis data

Journal of Glaciology ◽

10.1017/jog.2016.133 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 63 (237) ◽

pp. 176-193 ◽

Cited By ~ 21

Author(s):

DAVID J. WILTON ◽

AMY JOWETT ◽

EDWARD HANNA ◽

GRANT R. BIGG ◽

MICHIEL R. VAN DEN BROEKE ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Mass Balance ◽

Climate Models ◽

Local Level ◽

Ice Sheet ◽

Greenland Ice Sheet ◽

Reanalysis Data ◽

Surface Mass Balance ◽

Surface Mass ◽

Degree Day ◽

Positive Degree

ABSTRACTWe show results from a positive degree-day (PDD) model of Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) surface mass balance (SMB), 1870–2012, forced with reanalysis data. The model includes an improved daily temperature parameterization as compared with a previous version and is run at 1 km rather than 5 km resolution. The improvements lead overall to higher SMB with the same forcing data. We also compare our model with results from two regional climate models (RCMs). While there is good qualitative agreement between our PDD model and the RCMs, it usually results in lower precipitation and lower runoff but approximately equivalent SMB: mean 1979–2012 SMB (± standard deviation), in Gt a−1, is 382 ± 78 in the PDD model, compared with 379 ± 101 and 425 ± 90 for the RCMs. Comparison with in situ SMB observations suggests that the RCMs may be more accurate than PDD at local level, in some areas, although the latter generally compares well. Dividing the GrIS into seven drainage basins we show that SMB has decreased sharply in all regions since 2000. Finally we show correlation between runoff close to two calving glaciers and either calving front retreat or calving flux, this being most noticeable from the mid-1990s.

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Surface mass balance of glaciers in the French Alps: distributed modeling and sensitivity to climate change

Journal of Glaciology ◽

10.3189/172756505781829133 ◽

2005 ◽

Vol 51 (175) ◽

pp. 561-572 ◽

Cited By ~ 68

Author(s):

M. Gerbaux ◽

C. Genthon ◽

P. Etchevers ◽

C. Vincent ◽

J.P. Dedieu

Keyword(s):

Climate Change ◽

Mass Balance ◽

Full Range ◽

Balance Model ◽

Surface Mass Balance ◽

Equilibrium Line Altitude ◽

Time Step ◽

Meteorological Model ◽

Surface Mass ◽

French Alps

AbstractA new physically based distributed surface mass-balance model is presented for Alpine glaciers. Based on the Crocus prognostic snow model, it resolves both the temporal (1 hour time-step) and spatial (200 m grid-step) variability of the energy and mass balance of glaciers. Mass-balance reconstructions for the period 1981–2004 are produced using meteorological reconstruction from the SAFRAN meteorological model for Glacier de Saint-Sorlin and Glacier d’Argentière, French Alps. Both glaciers lost mass at an accelerated rate in the last 23 years. The spatial distribution of precipitation within the model grid is adjusted using field mass-balance measurements. This is the only correction made to the SAFRAN meteorological input to the glacier model, which also includes surface atmospheric temperature, moisture, wind and all components of downward radiation. Independent data from satellite imagery and geodetic measurements are used for model validation. With this model, glacier sensitivity to climate change can be separately evaluated with respect to a full range of meteorological parameters, whereas simpler models, such as degree-day models, only account for temperature and precipitation. We provide results for both mass balance and equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) using a generic Alpine glacier. The sensitivity of the ELA to air temperature alone is found to be 125 m °C–1, or 160 m °C¯1 if concurrent (Stefan–Boltzmann) longwave radiation change is taken into account.

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Greenland ice sheet surface mass balance: evaluating simulations and making projections with regional climate models

The Cryosphere ◽

10.5194/tc-6-1275-2012 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 6 (6) ◽

pp. 1275-1294 ◽

Cited By ~ 88

Author(s):

J. G. L. Rae ◽

G. Aðalgeirsdóttir ◽

T. L. Edwards ◽

X. Fettweis ◽

J. M. Gregory ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Mass Balance ◽

Sea Level ◽

Climate Models ◽

Regional Climate ◽

Ice Sheet ◽

Greenland Ice Sheet ◽

Regional Climate Models ◽

Surface Mass Balance ◽

Surface Mass ◽

Sheet Surface

Abstract. Four high-resolution regional climate models (RCMs) have been set up for the area of Greenland, with the aim of providing future projections of Greenland ice sheet surface mass balance (SMB), and its contribution to sea level rise, with greater accuracy than is possible from coarser-resolution general circulation models (GCMs). This is the first time an intercomparison has been carried out of RCM results for Greenland climate and SMB. Output from RCM simulations for the recent past with the four RCMs is evaluated against available observations. The evaluation highlights the importance of using a detailed snow physics scheme, especially regarding the representations of albedo and meltwater refreezing. Simulations with three of the RCMs for the 21st century using SRES scenario A1B from two GCMs produce trends of between −5.5 and −1.1 Gt yr−2 in SMB (equivalent to +0.015 and +0.003 mm sea level equivalent yr−2), with trends of smaller magnitude for scenario E1, in which emissions are mitigated. Results from one of the RCMs whose present-day simulation is most realistic indicate that an annual mean near-surface air temperature increase over Greenland of ~ 2°C would be required for the mass loss to increase such that it exceeds accumulation, thereby causing the SMB to become negative, which has been suggested as a threshold beyond which the ice sheet would eventually be eliminated.

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GrSMBMIP: Intercomparison of the modelled 1980-2012 surface mass balance over the Greenland Ice sheet

10.5194/egusphere-egu2020-10792 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Xavier Fettweis ◽

Keyword(s):

Mass Loss ◽

Mass Balance ◽

Climate Models ◽

Ice Sheet ◽

Greenland Ice Sheet ◽

Ice Cores ◽

Surface Mass Balance ◽

Surface Mass ◽

Meltwater Runoff

The Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) mass loss has been accelerating at a rate of about 20 +/- 10 Gt/yr2 since the end of the 1990's, with around 60% of this mass loss directly attributed to enhanced surface meltwater runoff. However, in the climate and glaciology communities, different approaches exist on how to model the different surface mass balance (SMB) components using: (1) complex physically-based climate models which are computationally expensive; (2) intermediate complexity energy balance models; (3) simple and fast positive degree day models which base their inferences on statistical principles and are computationally highly efficient. Additionally, many of these models compute the SMB components based on different spatial and temporal resolutions, with different forcing fields as well as different ice sheet topographies and extents, making inter-comparison difficult. In the GrIS SMB model intercomparison project (GrSMBMIP) we address these issues by forcing each model with the same data (i.e., the ERA-Interim reanalysis) except for two global models for which this forcing is limited to the oceanic conditions, and at the same time by interpolating all modelled results onto a common ice sheet mask at 1 km horizontal resolution for the common period 1980-2012. The SMB outputs from 13 models are then compared over the GrIS to (1) SMB estimates using a combination of gravimetric remote sensing data from GRACE and measured ice discharge, (2) ice cores, snow pits, in-situ SMB observations, and (3) remotely sensed bare ice extent from MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). Our results reveal that the mean GrIS SMB of all 13 models has been positive between 1980 and 2012 with an average of 340 +/- 112 Gt/yr, but has decreased at an average rate of -7.3 Gt/yr2 (with a significance of 96%), mainly driven by an increase of 8.0 Gt/yr2 (with a significance of 98%) in meltwater runoff. Spatially, the largest spread among models can be found around the margins of the ice sheet, highlighting the need for accurate representation of the GrIS ablation zone extent and processes driving the surface melt. In addition, a higher density of in-situ SMB observations is required, especially in the south-east accumulation zone, where the model spread can reach 2 mWE/yr due to large discrepancies in modelled snowfall accumulation. Overall, polar regional climate models (RCMs) perform the best compared to observations, in particular for simulating precipitation patterns. However, other simpler and faster models have biases of same order than RCMs with observations and remain then useful tools for long-term simulations. It is also interesting to note that the ensemble mean of the 13 models produces the best estimate of the present day SMB relative to observations, suggesting that biases are not systematic among models. Finally, results from MAR forced by ERA5 will be added in this intercomparison to evaluate the added value of using this new reanalysis as forcing vs the former ERA-Interim reanalysis (used in SMBMIP).&#160;

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Estimation of the Antarctic surface mass balance using MAR (1979–2015) and identification of dominant processes

10.5194/tc-2018-76 ◽

2018 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Cécile Agosta ◽

Charles Amory ◽

Christoph Kittel ◽

Anais Orsi ◽

Vincent Favier ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Mass Balance ◽

Climate Models ◽

Regional Climate ◽

Ice Sheet ◽

Snow Accumulation ◽

Surface Mass Balance ◽

Ice Dynamics ◽

Surface Mass ◽

Drifting Snow ◽

The Antarctic

Abstract. The Antarctic ice sheet mass balance is a major component of the sea level budget and results from the difference of two fluxes of a similar magnitude: ice flow discharging in the ocean and net snow accumulation on the ice sheet surface, i.e. the surface mass balance (SMB). Separately modelling ice dynamics and surface mass balance is the only way to project future trends. In addition, mass balance studies frequently use regional climate models (RCMs) outputs as an alternative to observed fields because SMB observations are particularly scarce on the ice sheet. Here we evaluate new simulations of the polar RCM MAR forced by three reanalyses, ERA-Interim, JRA-55 and MERRA2, for the period 1979–2015, and we compare our results to the last outputs of the RCM RACMO2 forced by ERA-Interim. We show that MAR and RACMO2 perform similarly well in simulating coast to plateau SMB gradients, and we find no significant differences in their simulated SMB when integrated over the ice sheet or its major basins. More importantly, we outline and quantify missing processes in both RCMs. Along stake transects, we show that both models accumulate too much snow on crests, and not enough snow in valleys, as a result of erosion-deposition processes not included in MAR, where the drifting snow module has been switched off, and probably underestimated in RACMO2 by a factor of three. As a consequence, the amount of drifting snow sublimating in the atmospheric boundary layer remains a potentially large mass sink needed to be better constrained. Moreover, MAR generally simulates larger SMB and snowfall amounts than RACMO2 inland, whereas snowfall rates are significantly lower in MAR than in RACMO2 at the ice sheet margins. This divergent behaviour at the margins results from differences in model parameterisations, as MAR explicitly advects precipitating particles through the atmospheric layers and sublimates snowflakes in the undersaturated katabatic layer, whereas in RACMO2 precipitation is added to the surface without advection through the atmosphere. Consequently, we corroborate a recent study concluding that sublimation of precipitation in the low-level atmospheric layers is a significant mass sink for the Antarctic SMB, as it may represent ∼ 240 ± 25 Gt yr-1 of difference in snowfall between RACMO2 and MAR for the period 1979–2015, which is 10 % of the simulated snowfall loaded on the ice sheet and more than twice the surface snow sublimation as currently simulated by MAR.

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