Study of the Effectiveness of Fire Service Vertical Ventilation and Suppression Tactics in Single Family Homes

2013 ◽  
Author(s):  
Steve Kerber ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Fire Service ◽  
Fire Dynamics ◽  
Front Door ◽  
The Past ◽  
Fuel Loads ◽  
Floor Plans ◽  
Vertical Ventilation ◽  
Open Floor ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Fire Ground

Under the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Assistance to Firefighter Grant Program, Underwriters Laboratories examined fire service ventilation and suppression practices as well as the impact of changes in modern house geometries. There has been a steady change in the residential fire environment over the past several decades. These changes include larger homes, more open floor plans and volumes, and increased synthetic fuel loads. This investigation examined the influence of these changes to the fire behavior and subsequent impact on firefighter tactics relative to horizontal and vertical ventilation and suppression. It is anticipated that the results of this investigation will be incorporated into improved firefighting tactics and decision making to reduce firefighter injuries and fatalities. Vertical ventilation has been used successfully but also resulted in firefighter fatalities in the past, as it is not easily coordinated with suppression and other fire ground tasks such as horizontal ventilation. It is not straightforward for firefighters to train on the effects of vertical ventilation since fire service training structures and props do not allow for ventilation-limited fire conditions with representative fuel loads and floor plans that will be encountered on the fire ground. Thus, guidance on the effectiveness of vertical ventilation comes from experience gained during real incidents, but under many different fire ground conditions. This has made it difficult to develop comprehensive guidance on the coordination of vertical ventilation with other firefighter tactics, and how these tactics may influence the fire dynamics in the burning home. The purpose of this study was to improve the understanding of the fire dynamics associated with the use of vertical ventilation so that it may be more effectively deployed on the fire ground. Two houses were constructed in the large fire facility of Underwriters Laboratories in Northbrook, IL. The first house was a one-story house (1200 ft , three bedrooms, one bathroom) with a total of 8 rooms. The second house was a two-story house (3200 ft, four bedrooms, two and a half bathrooms) with a total of 12 rooms. The second house featured a modern open floor plan, two-story great room and open foyer. A total of seventeen experiments were conducted varying the ventilation locations and the number of ventilation openings. Ventilation scenarios included ventilating the front door and a window near the seat of the fire (with modern and legacy furnishings) to link to the previous research on horizontal ventilation, opening the front door and ventilating over the fire and remote from the fire. Additional experiments examined controlling the front door, making different sized ventilation holes in the roof and the impact of exterior hose streams. The results from the experiments led to identification of tactical considerations for the fire service to integrate into their education and fire ground strategies and tactics where applicable.

scholarly journals Analysis of One and Two-Story Single Family Home Fire Dynamics and the Impact of Firefighter Horizontal Ventilation

2012 ◽  
Vol 49 (4) ◽  
pp. 857-889 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stephen Kerber
Keyword(s):  
Systems Approach ◽  
Fire Service ◽  
Experimental Investigations ◽  
Single Family ◽  
Fire Dynamics ◽  
Front Door ◽  
Open Floor ◽  
Modern House ◽  
The Impact ◽  
And Training

Abstract This paper describes experimental investigations on fire service ventilation practices in modern house geometries. Two houses were constructed inside a large fire facility. The first of two houses constructed was a one-story, 111.5 m2, 3 bedroom, 1 bathroom house with 8 total rooms. The second house was a two-story 297.3 m2, 4 bedroom, 2.5 bathroom house with 12 total rooms. The second house featured a modern open floor plan, two-story great room and open foyer. Fifteen experiments were conducted varying the ventilation locations and the number of ventilation openings. Ventilation scenarios included ventilating the front door only, opening the front door and a window near and remote from the seat of the fire, opening a window only and ventilating a higher opening in the two-story house. One scenario in each house was conducted in triplicate to examine repeatability. The results of these experiments examine potential occupant tenability and provide knowledge for the fire service for them to examine their horizontal ventilation standard operating procedures and training content. The fire dynamics resulting from ventilation practices such as ventilation near or remote from the seat of the fire and high versus low in relation to the fire are examined. Several other tactical considerations were developed utilizing the data from these experiments to provide specific examples of changes that can be adopted based on a departments current strategies and tactics. Such tactical considerations and a systems approach to fire service tactics should be investigated further.

Impact of Ventilation on Fire Behavior in Legacy and Contemporary Residential Construction

2010 ◽  
Author(s):  
Steve Kerber ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Homeland Security ◽  
Fire Behavior ◽  
The United States ◽  
Fire Service ◽  
United States Department ◽  
Department Of Homeland Security ◽  
Front Door ◽  
Fire Environment ◽  
Open Floor ◽  
The Impact

Under the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Assistance to Firefighter Grant Program, Underwriters Laboratories examined fire service ventilation practices as well as the impact of changes in modern house geometries. There has been a steady change in the residential fire environment over the past several decades. These changes include larger homes, more open floor plans and volumes and increased synthetic fuel loads. This series of experiments examine this change in fire behavior and the impact on firefighter ventilation tactics. This fire research project developed the empirical data that is needed to quantify the fire behavior associated with these scenarios and result in immediately developing the necessary firefighting ventilation practices to reduce firefighter death and injury. Two houses were constructed in the large fire facility of Underwriters Laboratories in Northbrook, IL. The first of two houses constructed was a one-story, 1200 ft, 3 bedroom, 
bathroom house with 8 total rooms. The second house was a two-story 3200 ft, 4 bedroom, 2.5 bathroom house with 12 total rooms. The second house featured a modern open floor plan, two- story great room and open foyer. Fifteen experiments were conducted varying the ventilation locations and the number of ventilation openings. Ventilation scenarios included ventilating the front door only, opening the front door and a window near and remote from the seat of the fire, opening a window only and ventilating a higher opening in the two-story house. One scenario in each house was conducted in triplicate to examine repeatability. The results of these experiments provide knowledge for the fire service for them to examine their thought processes, standard operating procedures and training content. Several tactical considerations were developed utilizing the data from the experiments to provide specific examples of changes that can be adopted based on a departments current strategies and tactics.

scholarly journals Analysis of Changing Residential Fire Dynamics and Its Implications on Firefighter Operational Timeframes

2011 ◽  
Vol 48 (4) ◽  
pp. 865-891 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stephen Kerber
Keyword(s):  
Failure Time ◽  
Response Times ◽  
Fire Behavior ◽  
Construction Materials ◽  
Fire Service ◽  
Living Room ◽  
Fire Dynamics ◽  
Fuel Loads ◽  
Residential Fire ◽  
The Impact

Abstract There has been a steady change in the residential fire environment over the past several decades. These changes include larger homes, different home geometries, increased synthetic fuel loads, and changing construction materials. Several experiments were conducted to compare the impact of changing fuel loads in residential houses. These experiments show living room fires have flashover times of less than 5 min when they used to be on the order of 30 min. Other experiments demonstrate the failure time of wall linings, windows and interior doors have decreased over time which also impact fire growth and firefighter tactics. Each of these changes alone may not be significant but the all-encompassing effect of these components on residential fire behavior has changed the incidents that the fire service is responding to. This analysis examines this change in fire dynamics and the impact on firefighter response times and operational timeframes.

scholarly journals Impact of Fire Attack Utilizing Interior and Exterior Streams on Firefighter Safety and Occupant Survival: Water Mapping

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Craig Weinschenk ◽  
◽  
Keith Stakes ◽  
Robin Zevotek
Keyword(s):  
Water Distribution ◽  
Scientific Information ◽  
Air Entrainment ◽  
Fire Service ◽  
Full Scale ◽  
Single Family ◽  
Fire Dynamics ◽  
Firefighter Safety ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Fire Ground

As research continues into how fire department interventions affect fire dynamics in the modern fire environment; questions continue to arise on the impact and implications of interior versus exterior fire attack on both firefighter safety and occupant survivability. Previous research into various types of fire ground ventilation, flow paths, and exterior fire streams has provided the fire service with an increased understanding of fire dynamics. However, in some instances, the information from the studies may not support current, experienced-based practices. This gap between the research to date and the fire ground suppression experience has driven the need for further study. Therefore, research into the various methods of fire attack will allow a broader understanding of how firefighter interventions on the fire ground can impact the outcome of both life safety and property protection. This study will build upon the fire research conducted to date by analyzing how firefighting tactics, specifically different fire suppression tools and tactics, affect the thermal exposure and survivability of both firefighters and building occupants and affect fire behavior in structures. The purpose of this study is to improve firefighter safety, fireground tactics, and the knowledge of fire dynamics by providing the fire service with scientific information, developed from water flow and full-scale fire testing, in representative single-family homes. The project will be comprised of 3 parts: • Part I: Water Distribution • Part II: Air Entrainment • Part III: Full-Scale Residential Fire Experiments This report details the results and analysis from the water distribution experiments. These tests were conducted without the presence of fire to gain a fundamental understanding of water flows into compartments. Each test was designed to quantify water distribution within a compartment by evaluating the differences caused by various application methods, hose stream types, nozzle movements, pressures/flow rates, stream locations and elevation angles.

scholarly journals Study of the Fire Service Training Environment: Safety, Fidelity, and Exposure -- Acquired Structures

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Keith Stakes ◽  
◽  
Joseph Willi
Keyword(s):  
Fire Service ◽  
Full Scale ◽  
Positive Pressure ◽  
Research Projects ◽  
Training Environment ◽  
Fuel Loads ◽  
Fire Environment ◽  
Service Training ◽  
Vertical Ventilation ◽  
The Impact

Previous FSRI led research projects have focused on examining the fire environment with regards to current building construction methods, synthetic fuel loading, and best-practices in firefighting strategies and tactics. More than 50 experiments have been previously conducted utilizing furniture to produce vent-limited fire conditions, replicating the residential fire environment, and studying the methods of horizontal ventilation, vertical ventilation, and positive pressure attack. Tactical considerations generated from the research are intended to provide fire departments with information to evaluate their standard operating procedures and make improvements, if necessary, to increase the safety and effectiveness of firefighting crews. Unfortunately, there still exists a long standing disconnect between live-fire training and the fireground as evident by continued line of duty injury and death investigations that point directly to a lack of realistic yet safe training, which highlights a continued misunderstanding of fire dynamics within structures. The main objective of the Study of the Fire Service Training Environment: Safety, Fidelity, and Exposure is to evaluate training methods and fuel packages in several different structures commonly used across the fire service to provide and highlight considerations to increase both safety and fidelity. This report is focused on the evaluation of live-fire training in acquired structures. A full scale structure was constructed using a similar floor plan as in the research projects for horizontal ventilation, vertical ventilation, and positive pressure attack to provide a comparison between the modern fire environment and the training ground. The structure was instrumented which allowed for the quantification of fire behavior, the impact of various ventilation tactics, and provided the ability to directly compare these experiments with the previous research. Twelve full scale fire experiments were conducted within the test structure using two common training fuel packages: 1) pallets, and 2) pallets and oriented strand board (OSB). To compare the training fuels to modern furnishings, the experiments conducted were designed to replicate both fire and ventilation location as well as event timing to the previous research. Horizontal ventilation, vertical ventilation, and positive pressure attack methods were tested, examining the proximity of the vent location to the fire (near vs. far). Each ventilation configuration in this series was tested twice with one of the two training fuel loads. The quantification of the differences between modern furnishings and wood-based training fuel loads and the impact of different ventilation tactics is documented through a detailed comparison to the tactical fireground considerations from the previous research studies. The experiments were compared to identify how the type of fuel used in acquired structures impacts the safety and fidelity of live-fire training. The comparisons in this report characterized initial fire growth, the propensity for the fire to become ventilation limited, the fires response to ventilation, and peak thermal exposure to students and instructors. Comparisons examined components of both functional and physical fidelity. Video footage was used to assess the visual cues, a component of the fire environment that is often difficult to replicate in training due to fuel load restrictions. The thermal environment within the structure was compared between fuel packages with regards to the potential tenability for both students and instructors.

Fire Service Summary Report: Study of the Effectiveness of Fire Service Vertical Ventilation and Suppression Tactics in Single Family Homes

2013 ◽  
Author(s):  
Steve Kerber ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Fire Behavior ◽  
Construction Materials ◽  
Fire Service ◽  
Fire Research ◽  
Single Family ◽  
Research Project ◽  
The Past ◽  
Home Construction ◽  
Vertical Ventilation ◽  
The Impact

There is a continued tragic loss of firefighter and civilian lives, as shown by fire statistics. One significant contributing factor is the lack of understanding of fire behavior in residential structures resulting from the use of ventilation as a firefighter practice on the fire ground. The changing dynamics of residential fires as a result of the changes in home construction materials, contents, size and geometry over the past 30 years compounds our lack of understanding of the effects of ventilation on fire behavior (Kerber S. , 2012). If used properly, ventilation improves visibility and reduces the chance of flashover or back draft. If a fire is not properly ventilated, it could result in an anticipated flashover, greatly reducing firefighter safety (Kerber S. , 2012). This fire research project developed empirical data from full-scale house fire experiments to examine vertical ventilation, suppression techniques and the resulting fire behavior. The purpose of this study was to improve firefighter knowledge of the effects of vertical ventilation and the impact of different suppression techniques. The experimental results may be used to develop tactical considerations outlining firefighting ventilation and suppression practices to reduce firefighter death and injury. This fire research project will further work from previous DHS AFG sponsored research (EMW-2008-FP-01774), which studied the impact of horizontal ventilation through doors and windows (Kerber S. , 2010).

scholarly journals Impact of Fire Attack Utilizing Interior and Exterior Streams on Firefighter Safety and Occupant Survival: Air Entrainment

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Craig Weinschenk ◽  
◽  
Keith Stakes ◽  
Robin Zevotek
Keyword(s):  
Scientific Information ◽  
Fire Behavior ◽  
Air Entrainment ◽  
Thermal Exposure ◽  
Fire Service ◽  
Full Scale ◽  
Single Family ◽  
Fire Dynamics ◽  
Firefighter Safety ◽  
Fire Ground

As research continues into how fire department interventions affect fire dynamics in the modern fire environment, questions continue to arise on the impact and implications of interior versus exterior fire attack on both firefighter safety and occupant survivability. Previous research into various types of fire ground ventilation, flow paths, and exterior fire streams has provided the fire service with an increased understanding of fire dynamics. However, in some instances, the information from the studies did not support current, experience-based practices. This gap between the research to date and the fire ground suppression experience has driven the need for further study. This study will build upon the fire research conducted to date by analyzing how firefighting tactics, specifically different fire suppression tools and tactics, affect the thermal exposure and survivability of both firefighters and building occupants and affect fire behavior in structures. The purpose of this study is to improve firefighter safety, fire ground tactics, and the knowledge of fire dynamics by providing the fire service with scientific information, developed from water flow and full-scale fire testing, in representative single-family homes. This study will build and expand upon the fire research conducted to date by analyzing how firefighting tactics, specifically suppression methods, affect the thermal exposure and survivability of both firefighters and building occupants in addition to impacting fire behavior in structures. The purpose of this study is to improve firefighter safety, fireground tactics, and the knowledge of fire dynamics by providing the fire service with credible scientific information, developed from both water flow and full-scale fire testing, in representative single family homes. The project is comprised of 3 parts: • Part I: Water Distribution • Part II: Air Entrainment • Part III: Full-Scale Residential Fire Experiments This report details the results and analysis from the air entrainment testing. These tests were conducted without the presence of fire to gain a fundamental understanding of how hose streams entrain air. Each set of experiments was intended to add to the understanding of air entrainment and pressure from fire service hose streams by evaluating the differences caused by various application methods, hose stream types, nozzle movements, pressures/flow rates, manufacturers, and ventilation configurations.

Why Would You Do It? Age and Motivation to Become a Fire Service Volunteer

2008 ◽  
Vol 1 ◽  
pp. 7-11 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jim McLennan ◽  
Adrian Birch
Keyword(s):  
Fire Service ◽  
Community Safety ◽  
Australian Society ◽  
Older Volunteers ◽  
The Past ◽  
Community Contribution ◽  
Service Volunteer ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Volunteer Fire Service ◽  
Do So

AbstractAustralian communities are very dependent on volunteer-based fire services for protection against fires and other hazards. However, overall volunteer numbers have declined significantly over the past decade, due mostly to the impact of economic and demographic changes on Australian society. One effect of these is that volunteer fire service memberships are ageing. Little is known with certainty about what motivates individuals to become fire service volunteers. A survey of 455 CFA volunteers suggested that those who volunteer do so because of a mix of community-safety, community-contribution, and self-oriented motivations. It appears that younger volunteers are more likely to be motivated by self-oriented perceived benefits from volunteering compared with older volunteers. However, they are no less motivated, on average, by community-safety concerns and community contribution desires than are older volunteers.

Impact of Fire Attack Utilizing Interior and Exterior Streams on Firefighter Safety and Occupant Survival: Full-Scale Experiments

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robin Zevotek ◽  
◽  
Keith Stakes ◽  
Joseph Willi
Keyword(s):  
Fire Department ◽  
Air Entrainment ◽  
Fire Service ◽  
Full Scale ◽  
Test Structure ◽  
Fire Dynamics ◽  
Firefighter Safety ◽  
Residential Structures ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Fire Experiments

As research continues into how fire department interventions affect fire dynamics in the modern fire environment, questions continue to arise on the impact and implications of interior versus exterior fire attack on both occupant survivability and firefighter safety. This knowledge gap and lack of previous research into the impact of fire streams has driven the need for further research into fire department interventions at structure fires with a focus on hose streams and suppression tactics. As the third report in the project “Impact of Fire Attack Utilizing Interior and Exterior Streams on Firefighter Safety and Occupant Survival”, this report expands upon the fire research conducted to date by analyzing how firefighting tactics, specifically suppression methods, affect the thermal exposure and survivability of both building occupants and firefighters in residential structures. • Part I: Water Distribution • Part II: Air Entrainment • Part III: Full-Scale Residential Fire Experiments. This report evaluates fire attack in residential structures through twenty-six full-scale structure fire experiments. Two fire attack methods, interior and transitional, were preformed at UL’s large fire lab in Northbrook, IL, in a single-story 1,600 ft2 ranch test structure utilizing three different ventilation configurations. To determine conditions within the test structure it was instrumented for temperature, pressure, gas velocity, heat flux, gas concentration, and moisture content. Ad- ditionally, to provide information on occupant burn injuries, five sets of instrumented pig skin were located in pre-determined locations in the structure. The results were analyzed to determine consistent themes in the data. These themes were evaluated in conjunction with a panel of fire service experts to develop 18 tactical considerations for fire ground operations. As you review the following tactical considerations it is important to utilize both these research results and your per- sonal experience to develop your department’s polices and implement these considerations during structural firefighting.

Fluorescent potentiometric dyes for membrane-potential imaging

1994 ◽  
Vol 52 ◽  
pp. 166-167
Author(s):  
Leslie M. Loew
Keyword(s):  
Membrane Potential ◽  
Single Cells ◽  
Quantitative Imaging ◽  
Optical Recording ◽  
Biological Processes ◽  
Major Focus ◽  
The Past ◽  
Excitable Systems ◽  
Major Application ◽  
The Impact

A major application of potentiometric dyes has been the multisite optical recording of electrical activity in excitable systems. After being championed by L.B. Cohen and his colleagues for the past 20 years, the impact of this technology is rapidly being felt and is spreading to an increasing number of neuroscience laboratories. A second class of experiments involves using dyes to image membrane potential distributions in single cells by digital imaging microscopy - a major focus of this lab. These studies usually do not require the temporal resolution of multisite optical recording, being primarily focussed on slow cell biological processes, and therefore can achieve much higher spatial resolution. We have developed 2 methods for quantitative imaging of membrane potential. One method uses dual wavelength imaging of membrane-staining dyes and the other uses quantitative 3D imaging of a fluorescent lipophilic cation; the dyes used in each case were synthesized for this purpose in this laboratory.

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