Measuring the effect of gender segregation on the gender gap in time-related underemployment

This paper focuses on the impact that gender segregation in the labour market exerts on the underemployment gender gap for young adult workers in Spain. In order to analyse the relative importance of segregation in this gap, we develop a methodology based on two counterfactual simulations that provides a detailed decomposition of the gap into endowments and coefficients effects as well as the interaction of these effects. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to perform a decomposition using bivariate probit models with sample selection. Using annual samples of the Spanish Labour Force Survey 2006–2016, the results show that working in female-dominated occupations or industries hinders working as many hours as desired, especially for women. Furthermore, we conclude that the gender gap in underemployment is mainly due to the different distribution of male and female workers across occupations and industries. Additionally, the different impact by gender that working in the same gender-typing jobs exerts on the risk of underemployment contributes to widening the gap.

Gendering Products Through Advertisements: A Review (1973–2019) of Various Cues Employed by Advertisers

Throughout history, people have used consumption props to adorn their gender. The products that individuals own and use are noticeable markers of their gender identity. This explains the sustained interest of advertisers in gender-typing products. Advertisers’ gender work is instrumental in establishing a gender order among products. By virtue of the gender meanings assigned by advertisers, products occupy spaces on the gender map. Advertisers employ various cues to operationalize the gender direction of the advertised products. A review of over four decades of research (1973–2019) on gender and advertising reveals that there are at least 22 different ways in which advertisers achieve gender polarization of products. This explanatory synthesis convenes these cues in the context of television and multimedia web-based and print advertisements. The methodology used also allows for classification of these cues. This review has definite theoretical and practical implications that justify the need for this research. The final output of this article displays the research landscape of the present topic and contributes to the existing advertising literature by offering a repository of objective tools used to shape the gender content of advertisements. It is the author’s belief that this article will help researchers conceptualize different product gendering techniques employed by advertisers and encourage further research in this area. From a practical perspective, advertisers looking to activate the gender schema in advertisements with a view to selectively target a particular gender may benefit from the results of this study.