A new solution to the “difficult problem” of the object of study of political economy

PurposeAs there are different interpretations of the object of study in the preface to the first edition of Capital (Volume I) by Karl Marx, disagreements arise over the object of study on political economy, which becomes a “difficult problem.” The purpose of the paper is to bring a new solution to the “difficult problem.”Design/methodology/approachBased on the analysis of the logic of the original text, the authors attempted to give a new interpretation of the “difficult problem” by analyzing the structure of Capital. The object of study of political economy is “the relations of production in the broad sense” of the capitalist mode of production.FindingsIt comprises relations of production in the narrow sense and exchange relations in the broad sense, and the latter can be divided into exchange relations in the narrow sense and distribution relations. The three of them correspond to Volume I, II and III of Capital, respectively. Consumption in “the four-section theory” is not studied by the political economy.Originality/valueAnd the four-section theory is not a part of the theory of Marxist economics but a part of the classical economics criticized by Marx. Therefore, the object of study of socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics is “the relations of production in the broad sense” regarding the socialist mode of production with Chinese characteristics, which is different from the capitalist relations of production in the broad sense.

Trust upset: Redefining the terms of trust in maintaining exchange relations

In contractual relations, malfeasance is subject to sanction by formal institutions. Trust is widely held to be an informal basis of non-contractual exchange, in which breaches of trust lead to exposure, resulting in the perpetrator’s loss of reputation and likely exclusion from future exchanges. The present article, on the other hand, shows that breaches of trust may lead to neither of these outcomes. Interview data reported here show that individuals who experience violations of agreement may develop coping strategies that do not include exposure of betrayal, confronting the trust-breaker, or retaliation. A contribution of the present article is to show that these differences can be conceptualized as involving two possible strategies by the betrayed party: one involving retaliation, directed to public disclosure of the betrayer’s unreliability and possible expulsion from future exchanges; the other is self-management, in which betrayal leads to the betrayed modifying their expectations and behaviour. A second contribution is to show how trust may be sociologically understood as a continuous process, requiring renegotiation, rearticulation, and even redefinition, rather than as a resolved and final commitment.

Facilitation of object encoding in infants by the observation of giving

We propose that humans are prepared to interpret giving as a diagnostic cue of reciprocal–exchange relations from infancy. A prediction following from this hypothesis is that infants will represent the identity of an object they see being given, because this information is critical for evaluating potential future reciprocation. Across three looking-time experiments we tested whether the observation of a transfer action induces 12-month-olds to encode the identity of a single object handled by an agent. We found that infants encoded the object identity when the agent gave the object (Experiment 1), but not when she took it (Experiment 2), despite being able to represent the goal of both actions (Experiments 1 and 3). Consistent with our hypothesis, these results suggest that the infants’ representation of giving comprises information necessary for comparing the value of transferred goods across sharing episodes.

THE INCEPTION OF SECURITIES TRADING AND THE LEGAL STATUS OF IT`S PARTICIPANTS

The article explores the legal peculiarities of stock trading in issue and non-issue securities, starting from the emergence of stock exchange relations in medieval Europe, when such a priori activity was international. As of today, diachronic analysis of the legal nature of securities – objects of private international law, theoretically important at once for the three sciences – law, history and economics, and practically in demand for banking and stock exchange law, law-making activity of national and international levels. The main object of the study in this context is the analysis of the subject composition, that is, the list of rights and obligations of the parties to the legal relationship over the circulation of securities encumbered by a foreign element – an object that has become increasingly relevant lately. Foreign trade law is largely customary, and foreign exchange law is a priori, since it arose under international law when it was never called before, and only then reciprocated by national legal systems. Unlike trade legal relations, which emerged as domestic and gradually evolved and expanded, exchange relations emerged to regulate relations with a foreign element, and only then began to be realized within the legal relations of domestic ones. Therefore, it would be appropriate to consider the “genetically” securities institute an institution of private international law. The presented scientific material deals with the genesis and evolution of the source base of legal regulation of the securities market and the establishment of close interdisciplinary links between the history of state and law and international private law.

Traditional Rural Society

A constant source in academic discussion of guanxi is a book, universally regarded as a template for understanding guanxi, first published in 1947 by Fei Xiaotong. The relevance of Fei’s model is critically assessed in the chapter. It demonstrates that Fei’s account of Chinese social relationships draws upon an idealized Confucianism rather than empirically-grounded social analysis. The discussion shows that Fei ignores non-kin relations in rural society, and an account of their importance is provided. A problem with Fei’s account of social obligation is identified. A proposed solution distinguishes between obligations generated through role compliance and obligations arising from exchange relations. Finally, it is shown that guanxi requires a notion of instrumental self-interest, absent in Fei’s account, and that interested action in guanxi operates through enhancing social standing or face, about which Fei has nothing to say. In this way the chapter clears the ground for discussion in subsequent chapters.

Secrecy in Practice: How Middle Managers Promote Strategic Initiatives behind the Scenes

In this study, we focus on secrecy within organizations and examine why and how middle managers use secrecy to explore and promote strategic initiatives. We conceptualize secrecy as a dynamic social process that unfolds in the political arena and is oriented toward gaining influence and power. It is enacted through a distinct set of practices intentionally designed to conceal and control identities, activities and information. Drawing on 35 in-depth interviews with executives who recount their experiences as middle managers, our findings indicate that middle managers tend to use secrecy under unfavourable contextual and personal conditions. Further, we find that middle managers use three key practices – selecting for enrolment, sequencing involvement and controlling information – to explore and promote strategic initiatives in secrecy. These secrecy practices enable them to influence cognition, emotions and exchange relations as they compete for attention and support. Finally, our findings suggest that secrecy can lead to two opposite outcomes. Managed carefully, secrecy enhances receptivity to strategic initiatives, but if it is mismanaged, secrecy leads to resistance and distrust.

Speech Function of Anies Baswedan in His Governor Inaugural Ceremony

ABSTRACTLanguage forms a dialogue that becomes a very important matter in communicating. Dialogue is related with speech function. Halliday (1994) suggests that dialogue is a process of exchange involving two variables; those are: (1) a commodity to be exchanged; either information or good and service and (2) roles associated with exchange relations; either giving or demanding. Halliday (1994) states that there are four basic types of speech functions; those are: offer, statement, command, and question. This study tries to analyze the speech function of used by Anies Baswedan in his speech when he was ceremonially approved the governor of Jakarta in the Period of 2017-2022. Based on the data analysis, it was got that there are 75 independent clauses of which speech functions are statement, and there are 7 independent clauses of which speech functions are command. The speech functions of statement are in marked and unmarked mood, while the command ones are in unmarked mood. The types of speech function found in the speech are correlated with the function found in the speech are correlated with the function and the goal of the speech. Keywords: Speech Function, Speech, Governor, Inaugural Ceremony.