The Priorities of EU Energy Policy

The article deals with the evolution, development conditions and characteristics of implementation of the EEU/EU key energy policy goals in the 1960‒2010s. The authors apply historical analysis to consider the goals of the EEU in the energy sector in the 1960‒1980s and proceed to the EU energy policy goals in the 1990‒2010s. They explore the challenges that had brought these goals to the top of the EU energy policy list and the traditional hierarchy of the EU energy policy goals. Seen through the prism of historic development, security was the first and most acute goal, integrated energy market – the second, and ecology – the third. The authors raise a question if one should expect changes in the priorities of the energy policy goals under the conditions of the ongoing ecological and climate turn in the long-term development strategies of the EU. Until 2019 security had dominated the list of the EU major energy policy goals. However, after 2020 ecology may replace security as an «umbrella goal». It has already become one of the key drivers of energy sector reform and makes the EU members give up their sovereignty in favour of the EU institutions.

Europeanization Processes of the EU Energy Policy in Visegrad Countries in the Years 2005–2018

Energy issues are sensitive for the four Visegrad countries as European Union (EU) member states; thus, this area’s convergence might be problematic for these countries. There is a clear research gap concerning the processes of Europeanization of the energy policy in the Visegrad countries. This article aims to identify and evaluate the progress of four Visegrad countries (V4) in implementing the EU energy goals in the context of the Europeanization. The article uses three main methods: Hellwig’s method, Kendall’s rank concordance coefficient, and k-means clustering. These calculations will allow one to study the Europeanization processes, which means checking the gamma convergence. For calculations, we use the available statistical data from Eurostat for the years 2005–2018. Poland and other Central European countries, including Czechia, and Hungary, largely depend on coal for their energy needs. The empirical results have shown that there have been no significant changes in the classification of EU countries in terms of their fulfillment of the EU climate and energy targets in the analyzed period. This is the case in all EU member states, including the Visegrad Group countries, but except for Poland. This means that the level of Europeanization of the energy policy and its effectiveness is similar in all member states except for Poland, which is becoming a kind of the exception. Throughout the investigating period, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Slovakia were close to meeting the set targets and could be rated high compared to the EU countries. Poland, especially since 2015, has been noticeably and increasingly distanced from the other V4 countries. It can be perceived as a gradual drift away from Europeanization of the EU climate and energy policy in Poland.

Photovoltaic Inverter Profiles in Relation to the European Network Code NC RfG and the Requirements of Polish Distribution System Operators

The presently observed rapid increase in photovoltaic (PV) micro-installation connections to low-voltage networks, resulting from numerous financial support programmes, European Union (EU) energy policy and growing social awareness of environmental and economic issues, raise the question if PV inverters widely available in EU market fulfil the numerous technical requirements specified in European and Polish regulations. The paper presents the results of an experimental study carried out on three PV Inverters widely available in the EU in accordance with the EU network code NC RfG, standard EN 50549-1:2019 and internal Polish distribution system operators’ (DSOs’) regulations, governing PV inverter cooperation with the low-voltage distribution network. The laboratory test stand scheme and its description are presented. In each test, at least one of the inverters encountered issues, either with the operation in required frequency ranges (one PV inverter), activating reactive power control modes (all three PV inverters), maintaining required power generation gradient after tripping (one PV inverter) or under-voltage ride through immunity (one PV inverter). The obtained results have shown that all tested PV inverters did not meet requirements that are the key to maintaining reliable and safe operation of transmission and distribution electrical networks.

EU Energy Policy: A Socio-Energy Perspective for an Inclusive Energy Transition

This chapter presents the evolution of EU energy policy, examining how concepts of inclusiveness and justice in energy have been progressively included in relevant energy policy documents. It discusses how EU energy policy has evolved to acknowledge the importance of the individual as well as the collective dimension of energy for an inclusive green transition. Recognizing the challenges linked to the translation of these concepts into concrete actions, the chapter elaborates a socio-energy system approach that can help in making visible important aspects of the energy transition that would go unrecognized in other analytical approaches that focus mainly on the technological side. There is an increasing awareness that the European Green Deal and other political initiatives for a sustainable future require not only technological change but also careful attention to the social implications of the transition. The chapter applies the proposed approach to smart metering technologies, discussing how the technology-centric view of the energy system is framed around the average consumer or early-adopter, leaving vulnerable groups and those living in energy poverty underrepresented. A socio-energy approach also challenges the predominant use of purely quantitative results such as energy or cost savings to evaluate the successfulness of initiatives tackling inclusiveness and fairness (e.g. energy poverty). Social outcomes of energy policy choices and technology arrangements need to be better investigated and accompanied by innovative ways to measure their success. The proposed socio-energy approach offers a way of including wider societal implications of the energy transition in the design of energy policies and in their implementation.

China’s energy cooperation within the 17+1

The paper analyses Chinese energy cooperation within the 17+1 Cooperation Framework. In order to present the broader political context of this collaboration, special attention is given to Chinese energy interests and EU energy policy. Since the existing databases about Chinese energy projects in 17+1 were incomplete, the authors created a new dedicated database. The authors address key questions about the principal projects involved such as: what are the countries and energy subsectors in which China invests the most; what are the main obstacles in existing energy cooperation; does this kind of energy cooperation have a positive impact on the development of 17+1 members and is China successful in fulfilling its geo-economic strategy in 17+1 in regards to its overall energy policy. The authors find that China is primarily interested in building coalfired power plants, but results remain below expectations, with performance affected by a combination of EU opposition, project costs, and internal political issues in the 17+1 countries. The nuclear energy subsector is where Chinese enterprises have experienced some of their greatest failures, while the hydro energy subsector still has potential for future development. In addition, China is strongly investing in green energy and slowly but surely achieving its energy policy goals as part of its broader geo-economic strategy. The authors conclude that the overall effects of cooperation in the energy field are promising, but there is still space for further improvement.

Sovereignty in the Era of Globalism: EU Energy Regulation in the Shadow of Sovereignty?

In our globalised world the phenomenon of Babylonian confusion can be observed in relation to the concept of sovereignty, and the boundaries of national, European, and international law are becoming increasingly blurred. In the following, I will seek an answer to the question how the term of sovereignty is rewritten, and the scope of its interpretation expanded in our globalised and Europeanised surroundings. In this context, I will present firstly some major international and Hungarian approaches to the definition of sovereignty in modern times. Secondly, I will examine how the sovereignty of the Member States has developed in the European Union, highlighting to what extent can we talk about a sovereign energy policy of the Member States in the light of shared competences adopted in the field of energy policy. Thirdly, I will scrutinise how EU energy policy can change in the near future, and what kind of a role Member States can play in this process. As there is still no universally accepted definition of sovereignty, the role of science is essential in the conceptualisation of the term. The Treaty of Lisbon has brought a supranational turn also in the field of energy, but Member States still have a relatively wide leeway to create their own regulatory framework that takes into account their national and regional characteristics. Environmental considerations in recent years have led to the initiation of a single energy market and the creation of the European energy union that is expected to become more intense in the near future. Therefore, it is crucial for Member States, both at a national and a regional level, to be actively involved in the establishment and formulation of community law in order to be able to represent their interest effectively.