Introduction

The energy transition is an unprecedented challenge for the world. It is unprecedented in its global ambition and in its complexity. In the United Nations Agenda for Sustainable Development it is formulated as ‘Achieving Sustainable Energy for All’.

Hydrogen–The Bridge Between Africa and Europe

This chapter describes a European energy system based on 50% renewable electricity and 50% green hydrogen, which can be achieved by 2050. The green hydrogen shall consist of hydrogen produced in Europe, complemented by hydrogen imports, especially from North Africa. Hydrogen import from North Africa will be beneficial for both Europe and North Africa. A bold energy sector strategy with an important infrastructure component is suggested, which differs from more traditional bottom-up sectoral strategies. This approach guarantees optimized use of (existing) infrastructure, has low risk and cost, improves Europe’s energy security and supports European technology leadership. In North Africa it would foster economic development, boost export, create future-oriented jobs in a high-tech sector and support social stability.

Decentralised Control and Peer-To-Peer Cooperation in Smart Energy Systems

In order to achieve a decarbonised energy system, change has to happen from electricity generation to the transmission grid over the distribution level all the way down to the industrial loads and the local households. To get involvement of communities in this energy transition, local participation is needed, so that the citizens can be aware of the impact of their energy-related actions on environment and climate. However, the energy system has typically been organised in a top-down fashion, with centralised approaches and little active control, resulting in passive grid and ditto customers. Smart grids have put active customers and consumer engagement as one of the cornerstones of a more intelligent energy infrastructure, which can be organised differently. Indeed, in different niches decentralised approaches have been used successfully (decoupled microgrids, peer-to-peer networks, etc.). This chapter explores how decentralised approaches can fit the future energy system and how it can empower people for engaging in the energy transition.

Moving Towards Nexus Solutions to ‘Energy’ Problems: An Inclusive Approach

This chapter offers an innovative approach to examining how fuel poverty in one of the most affected countries in the EU: Bulgaria can be examined as part of the urban nexus of food, water, energy and the environment. Building on bodies of literature of the nexus, fuel poverty, energy transitions and energy geographies, this chapter uses the example of energy provisioning in the capital city of Bulgaria: Sofia to illustrate how a more inclusive approach to addressing fuel poverty and air pollution can be developed. The case study unpacks the urban nexus by examining three practices: urban gardening, making zimnina, and heating and energy use in the home. It illustrates how the interdependencies between the practices of urban gardening, making zimnina and domestic heating and energy use have direct implications for the energy system of provisioning and can be important vectors in the energy transition for vulnerable citizens in the city. The chapter addresses an important research gap in urban nexus literature by offering a compelling empirical account of mapping nexus interactions through the perspective of vulnerable users, focusing on low-technological ways of managing the urban nexus (rather than technologically driven integration across sectors).

Good Governance and the Regulation of the District Heating Market

This chapter discusses how the fundamental values of energy democracy and energy justice and the principles of good governance can play a role in developing a more consistent approach towards the regulation of the energy sector and, more in particular, in dealing with the challenges of regulating the heat transition in the Netherlands in a just way. Energy justice and energy democracy are energy specific concepts that are gaining influence when interpreting and applying the principles of good governance in the energy sector. Both concepts are based on the awareness that the energy transition is a matter for all citizens of the European Union and should not be ignored by policymakers and independent regulators. The heat transition in the Netherlands significantly impacts the position of consumers, prosumers and vulnerable customers, as an ever-larger group of consumers will be disconnected from the gas grid and will be connected to heat networks. Energy democracy and energy justice and the principles of good governance are important values that should guide policy-makers in making choices that affect consumer participation and the protection of vulnerable customers in the heat transition. It is elaborated how energy democracy and energy justice and the principles of good governance indeed can provide a useful framework within which advantages and disadvantages can be weighed of regulatory choices to be made when modernising the regulation of the heat market in a just way. In particular, there remains a lot to gain in terms of flexible regulation and supervision as well as the facilitation of consumer/prosumer participation in the Netherlands. Because it is likely that most heat consumers will remain locked in for a relatively long time in natural monopolies facilitated by older generation heat networks and the lack of alternative heating, substantive consumer-participation could yield positive results regarding community engagement in heat network management and heat supply.

Enabling Public Participation in Shaping the Inclusive Energy Transition Through Serious Gaming—Case Studies in India

To create holistic plans for equitable access to energy and to create sustainable transition pathways, stakeholder consultation and engagement processes are essential. In India, the planning process for energy has challenges that range from legacy processes, increasing energy demand to fuel growth, pressures arising from competing (as well as new and old) technologies, to varying goals for all the stakeholders. We categorize these factors as institutional structures, geopolitical, environmental, technical, social, and monetary factors. To ensure a vision for a collective future and a coherent plan for energy, it is important that the processes enable participation and allow for co-ordination and interaction to strengthen dialogue. Processes should capture intangibles and include slack for events such as pandemics, which are no longer treated either as externalities or once-in-a-lifetime events. In this chapter, we give two examples of serious games as tools to address these challenges in the context of planning. The first example is of a game created for bureaucrats, decision-makers in the government, and private energy companies to plan collectively and compare results from various plans for energy expenditure in India. In the second case, the game aids transportation planning in urban India, which requires additional effort to ensure a transition to equitable access to energy. Using results from the game sessions, we illustrate how such methods can bridge gaps in energy planning in the diverse and challenging context of India.

EU Energy Policy: A Socio-Energy Perspective for an Inclusive Energy Transition

This chapter presents the evolution of EU energy policy, examining how concepts of inclusiveness and justice in energy have been progressively included in relevant energy policy documents. It discusses how EU energy policy has evolved to acknowledge the importance of the individual as well as the collective dimension of energy for an inclusive green transition. Recognizing the challenges linked to the translation of these concepts into concrete actions, the chapter elaborates a socio-energy system approach that can help in making visible important aspects of the energy transition that would go unrecognized in other analytical approaches that focus mainly on the technological side. There is an increasing awareness that the European Green Deal and other political initiatives for a sustainable future require not only technological change but also careful attention to the social implications of the transition. The chapter applies the proposed approach to smart metering technologies, discussing how the technology-centric view of the energy system is framed around the average consumer or early-adopter, leaving vulnerable groups and those living in energy poverty underrepresented. A socio-energy approach also challenges the predominant use of purely quantitative results such as energy or cost savings to evaluate the successfulness of initiatives tackling inclusiveness and fairness (e.g. energy poverty). Social outcomes of energy policy choices and technology arrangements need to be better investigated and accompanied by innovative ways to measure their success. The proposed socio-energy approach offers a way of including wider societal implications of the energy transition in the design of energy policies and in their implementation.

Perspectives on Justice in the Future Energy System: A Dutch Treat

The (un)affordability, the (un)reliability and the (un)sustainability of our energy supply are increasingly associated with the phenomenon of energy justice. This concerns the way in which different groups of citizens and businesses experience the benefits and burdens of the energy transition. We explore how the concept of energy justice may support a just transition. Firstly, we address the socio-political embedding of the energy sector and policy-making. Then we explain how the concept of energy justice is defined and operationalized, in respect of policy making and implementation. Thereupon we apply the concept of energy justice to the current Dutch energy debate, addressing the reduction of natural gas production to diminish the number and strength of earthquakes in Groningen, and the longer-term policy objectives of the energy transition. It addresses the radical changes in energy use and supply and the consequent wide variety in direct and indirect consequences for citizens and businesses, depending on their specific circumstances. The notion of energy justice is discussed as a feature in local, national and EU policy making and implementation, and as a claim of social actors, communities and individuals. The suggestion that justice issues can be identified and solved at these levels, is too simple. It is important to consider the layout and nature of the socio-technical energy system and its functioning. It is concluded that the concept of justice may help researchers to identify the relevant values and value conflicts in the energy transition. This can help policymakers to make informed choices.

The Hidden Dimension of the Energy Transition: Religion, Morality and Inclusion—A Plea for the (Secular) Sacred

This chapter explores the energy transition from a philosophical perspective. We argue that there is a hidden dimension in the current discussions about sustainability. This hidden dimension can be found first of all in the fact that phenomena such as the denial of global warming, the rise of populism and the increase in social contradictions are not seen in their context. At a fundamental level, it appears that all these phenomena are characterized by broken connections: man no longer feels connected with the Transcendent, the human being and the planet. On the basis of the above analysis, we outline some action perspectives. We conclude that the energy transition not only requires addressing technological, economic, social and legal problems, but that moral and religious aspects must also be discussed. Because it is precisely religious or moral values that motivate and inspire people to strive for an inclusive energy transition and release a lot of creative energy.

Rethinking Infrastructure as the Fabric of a Changing Society

In this chapter, we explore the nature of infrastructure, how it is appreciated by society, how this appreciation has changed over the lifetime of the infrastructure, and how infrastructure development and performance are influenced by the governance structures in place. While the focus in this chapter is on energy infrastructure, ample illustrative material is also provided from other infrastructure sectors. We examine the trends towards technological and administrative decentralisation and towards digitalisation of infrastructure (service) provision. These trends enable formerly passive consumers to adopt new roles as providers of energy, data and transport services, and result in strongly increasing cross-sector interdependencies, especially between energy, transport and digital infrastructure. These interdependencies, however, are not reflected in the siloed governance structure of these domains, which hinders the energy transition. Furthermore, we diagnose a mismatch between, on the one hand, the focus of energy infrastructure governance on cost-effectiveness—with a view to low-cost service provision—and, on the other hand, the role of infrastructure in upholding and creating social value in terms of equity, fairness and social justice. Since the energy market liberalisation, the fundamental role of infrastructure as the fabric of society appears to be a blind spot in reflections on infrastructure and largely unexplored territory in current infrastructure policy and governance. If not remedied, this blind spot may exacerbate existing inequalities between energy consumers and create new divides in society, as is illustrated by current developments in the Netherlands with respect to sustainable heat provision. We advocate a richer value orientation in energy infrastructure governance and infrastructure governance at large, which goes beyond the current focus on efficiency and economic value, in recognition of changing societal values and priorities and, most of all, to fulfil the potential of infrastructure in creating an inclusive society.