Breathing with Both Lungs: The Uncreated Grace of the Holy Trinity in the Works of Karl Rahner and St Gregory Palamas

Eastern Orthodox theology in the 20th century experienced what has been referred to as a ‘Palamite renaissance,’ through a certain rediscovery of the works of the 14th-century archbishop and theologian, St Gregory Palamas. In the Christian West, 20th-century theology saw a great ‘return to the sources,’ among which Karl Rahner’s influential work played an important role in integrating elements of the scholastic tradition with that of the biblical and Greek patristic traditions. While there is a growing awareness and acceptance of Palamas’s teaching among Western scholars, many still view it as an incompatible obstacle to reconciliation between East and West. This article seeks to demonstrate that Karl Rahner’s work on grace and the Trinity, while remaining within its respective system and never mentioning Gregory Palamas, is at its heart identical to that of Palamas in several key areas, and that these two theologians may in fact provide a bridge for integrating the two traditions.

Considerações sobre a impossibilidade de definir o homem a partir de Descartes

Procuramos, neste texto, pensar o significado da rejeição da tradicional definição de homem efetuada por Descartes, quando tenta entender o que somos. Essa rejeição é resultado de um novo método de filosofar, que poderíamos designar como via das ideias – aquela que parte das forças do próprio espírito para examinar tudo o que ocorre nele e em qualquer outra coisa, evitando usar de pressuposições. A fim de marcar essa diferença de perspectiva e a reiterada disposição do filósofo francês em elaborá-la, apontamos a limitação da noção de conceito – seja aquela da tradição aristotélica-escolástica, seja a pós-cartesiana, fortemente marcada pela representação científica – para dar conta da problemática do fenômeno humano. Nesse sentido, insistimos na riqueza e amplitude da noção de ideia – elaborada e reelaborada ao longo dos anos pelo filósofo – para enfrentar esse complexo fenômeno. Uma vez que o homem não é uma substância, a manifestação dos seus aspectos é sempre adjetiva, podendo qualificá-lo sem, contudo, propiciar a sua compreensão. Essa dificuldade de apreensão exige, portanto, que o estudo da ideia de homem explore até o limite a própria racionalidade humana Palavras-chave: Descartes. homem. ideia. conceito. definição. Considerations on the impossibility of defining man based on Descartes Abstract: The aim of this text is to reflect on the meaning of the rejection of the traditional definition of man performed by Descartes when he attempts to understand what we are. This rejection is the result of a new method of philosophizing, which we may designate as the way of ideas—that which emerges from the forces of one’s own spirit to examine all that occurs within it and in any other thing, avoiding the use of presuppositions. To highlight this difference of perspective and the reiterated willingness of this French philosopher in elaborating it, we indicate the limitation of the notion of concept—whether that of the Aristotelian-Scholastic tradition or the post-Cartesian tradition, strongly characterized by scientific representation—to deal with the problematic of the phenomenon of the human. In this respect, we stress the richness and amplitude of the notion of idea, elaborated and re-elaborated over years by this philosopher, to address this complex phenomenon. Since man is not a substance, the manifestation of his aspects is always adjectival, allowing qualification without, however, providing comprehension. This difficulty of perception therefore requires that the study of the idea of man explore human rationality itself to the greatest extent. Keywords: Descartes, man, idea, concept, definition Considérations sur l'impossibilité de définir l'homme à partir de Descartes Resumé: On se propose, dans ce texte, de réfléchir sur le sens du rejet de la définition traditionnelle de l'homme faite par Descartes, lorsqu'il tente de comprendre ce que nous sommes. Ce rejet est le résultat d'une nouvelle méthode de philosopher, que nous pourrions désigner comme la voie des idées - celle qui part des forces de l'esprit lui-même pour examiner tout ce qui se passe en lui et en toute autre chose, en évitant d'utiliser des présupposés. Pour marquer cette différence de perspective et la disposition réitérée du philosophe français dans son élaboration, nous soulignons la limitation de la notion de concept - soit celle de la tradition aristotélicienne-scolastique, soit celle post-cartésienne, fortement marquée par la représentation scientifique - pour rendre compte de la problématique du phénomène humain. En ce sens, nous insistons sur la richesse et l'amplitude de la notion d'idée - élaborée et retravaillée au fil des années par Descartes - pour faire face à ce phénomène complexe. Une fois l'homme n'est plus une substance, la manifestation de ses aspects reste toujours adjective, pouvant le qualifier sans toutefois favoriser sa compréhension. Cette difficulté d'appréhension exige donc que l'étude de l'idée de l'homme explore jusqu'à la limite la rationalité humaine elle-même. Mots-clés: Descartes, homme, idée, concept, définition. Data de registro: 17/11/2020 Data de aceite: 30/12/2020

On the 400th anniversary of the birth of Thomas Willis

In 2021 we celebrate the 400th anniversary of the birth of one of the greatest neuroanatomists, Thomas Willis, the founder of clinical neurology. Willis’ name is usually associated with ‘the circle’ and the word ‘neurologia’, but his work which comprised insightful descriptions of clinical cases and clear, well-illustrated and articulated scientific publications and case histories also formed the foundation of modern translational research and clinical medicine. In the 16th and 17th centuries classical medical training was based on academic, scholastic tradition, not empirical observations. Willis' work highlights the importance of first-hand clinical observations, and the personalized care of patients and their families. It also emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary working and the significance of different viewpoints.

The Thesis of Medieval Ontology in Heidegger’s Interpretation

The article is devoted to the analysis of Heidegger’s interpretation of the me­dieval ontology thesis. The main source for this article is Heidegger’s Marburg Lectures “Die Grundprobleme der Phänomenologie”, where the problem of the interpretation of the medieval ontology thesis has a special section. The meth­ods of hermeneutic analysis, comparative analysis, as well as the method of historical and philosophical reconstruction are applied in the research. The ar­ticle shows what points of convergence Heidegger could find in the medieval tradition of discussing the problem of distinction between essence (essentia) and existence (existentia) with his project of fundamental ontology. Particular attention is paid to clarifying the core definitions of essentia and existentia for the topic of study, as well as the closely related Greek terms μορφή, εἶδος (ἰδέα), τὸ τὶ ᾖν εἶναι, γένος, φύσις, ὁριςμός, οὐσία in the Heidegger’s interpre­tation. The article presents how the clarification of the genealogy of key onto­logical terms enables Heidegger to discover the correlation between the con­structions of medieval metaphysics and Dasein analytics. The author shows to what extent the scholastic tradition of discussing the problem of the relation and distinction between essence and existence in Heidegger’s interpretation could serve as a kind of introduction to the Heidegger’s project of ontology as phenomenology. The article also shows what difficulties arise when trying to apply the results of the analysis of medieval ontology thesis to the specificity of the Dasein. In this problematic context are considered the correlation and distinction of the terms proposed by Heidegger: Washeit, Vorhandensein as well as Werheit and Existenz.

Domesticating Descartes, Renovating Scholasticism

This article studies the academic context in which Cartesianism was absorbed in Germany in the mid-seventeenth century. It focuses on the role of Johann Clauberg (1622-1665), first rector of the new University of Duisburg, in adjusting scholastic tradition to accommodate Descartes’s philosophy, thereby making the latter suitable for teaching in universities. It highlights contextual motivations behind Clauberg’s synthesis of Cartesianism with the existing framework such as a pedagogical interest in Descartes as offering a simpler method, and a systematic concern to disentangle philosophy from theological disputes. These motivations are brought into view by situating Clauberg in the closely-linked contexts of Protestant educational reforms, and debates around the proper relation between philosophy and theology. In this background, it argues that Clauberg nevertheless retains an Aristotelian conception of ontology for purely philosophical reasons, specifically, to give objective foundations to Descartes’s metaphysics of substance. In conclusion, Clauberg should not be assimilated either to Aristotelianism or to Cartesianism or, indeed, to syncretic labels such as ‘Cartesian Scholastic’. Instead, he should be read as transforming both schools by drawing on a variety of elements in order to address issues local to the academic milieu of his time.

Before, During, and After the Ban

The final section of the book is a bibliographical essay that helps situate the significance of the Verse Comments in relation to numerous examples of other kinds of interpretative works produced during the lengthy but rather up-and-down history of commentaries on Dōgen’s Treasury. The scholastic tradition began in the early 1300s with the composition of the Prose Comments by Senne and Kyōgō in addition to Giun’s Verse Comments. In distinct ways, both of these commentaries represent a proselytizing (teishō) or homiletic outlook for understanding the significance of the Sōtō founder’s philosophy of religion. This epilogue also examines the history of commentaries on the Treasury composed in the Edo period as well as diverse scholarly trends since the twentieth century.

The Doctrine of Occasionalism

Chapter 1 explains the doctrine of occasionalism. Section 1.1 unpacks the occasionalist claim that God is the only efficient cause, by explaining the concept of an efficient cause, as it was typically understood in medieval and early modern texts. Section 1.2 contrasts occasionalism with a theory of divine providence developed by Thomas Aquinas, which says that God “concurs” with the actions of created substances. Section 1.3 clarifies the difference between occasionalism and the Thomistic theory of divine concurrence using the notion of a causal power: According to this analysis, occasionalism entails that created substances do not have intrinsic active causal powers. Malebranche expresses this claim by saying that created beings are “occasional causes” that merely “give occasion” to God’s actions. However, section 1.4 argues that there is also a Scholastic tradition that uses terms such as “occasion” and “occasional cause” to refer to a type of true efficient cause.