The Impact of Coding Apps to Support Young Children in Computational Thinking and Computational Fluency. A Literature Review

Data that shows that young children can learn and acquire Computational Thinking (CT) skills has led governments and policymakers internationally to integrate CT into the curriculum, starting in the earliest grades. Researchers support the idea that this introduction must not solely focus on a problem-solving process skill (CT) but instead provide children with new ways to express themselves, supporting their cognitive, language, and socio-emotional development (Computational Fluency-CF). Coupled with the media and government’s rhetoric and an increasing number of apps offering various programming lessons, puzzles, and challenges, educators have been responsible for introducing young children to CT and CF using touchscreen technology. This paper presents a literature review (N = 21) of empirical studies on applying four coding apps to support young children’s learning of CT and CF. The main conclusion is that all apps positively affect the development of children’s CT skills. None of the apps can ultimately support the development of CF, although ScratchJr, with a “sandbox” approach, can better help students express themselves.

Characteristics and Instructional Strategies for Students With Mathematical Difficulties

This chapter explores mathematics education for students with mathematical difficulties (MD) and disabilities. Academic achievement measures have remained stagnant for this student population over the past 20 years (NAEP, 2013). The authors highlight Multi-Tiered System of Support and evidence-based strategies as a means to address the unique needs of students with disabilities within inclusion and general education contexts. Common characteristics of students with MD are challenges with working memory, number sense, symbols, basic fact computational fluency, word problem solving, and self-regulation. Educators can apply these specific recommendations to enhance mathematics instruction to address the critical factors for academic success for all students, but specifically students in special education or with MD. In order to implement these evidence-based strategies and ensure specially designed instruction is being provided, co-teaching models are reviewed as one way to provide instructional support in an inclusive setting.

Brief Experimental Analysis of Math Interventions: A Synthesis of Evidence

Brief experimental analysis (BEA) is a quick method used to identify the function of student learning difficulties and match effective interventions to students’ needs. Extensive work has been done to explore the use of this methodology to determine effective reading interventions; however, a smaller number of published studies have examined the use of BEAs in math. The purpose of the current review was to identify all studies that have used BEA methodology in math. Fifteen studies that included 63 participants and used BEA methodology to identify the most effective math intervention for students were located. Results of the synthesis indicate that the majority of BEAs compared skill and performance interventions on computational fluency; however, the methodology across the included studies varied. Strengths and limitations of the research, in addition to implications for research and practice, are discussed.

Effects of Interventions with Manipulatives on Immediate Learning, Maintenance, and Transfer in Children with Mathematics Learning Disabilities: A Systematic Review

Manipulatives are concrete or virtual objects (e.g., blocks and chips) often used in elementary grades to illustrate abstract mathematical concepts. We conducted a systematic review to examine the effects of interventions delivered with manipulatives on the learning of children with mathematics learning disabilities (MLD). The outcomes observed in the sample (N = 38) were learning, maintenance, and transfer in a variety of mathematical domains. Interventions using manipulatives were reported to be effective for a range of learning objectives (e.g., conceptual understanding and computational fluency), but several methodological weaknesses were observed. Analyses also highlighted considerable heterogeneity in the studies reviewed in terms of participant characteristics, intervention approaches, and methodology. We discuss overall effects of interventions with manipulatives in the MLD population, the methodological quality across the sample, and implications for practice.

Number Strings: Daily Computational Fluency

Second graders use this beneficial instructional routine alongside the Standards for Mathematical Practice.

Characteristics and Instructional Strategies for Students With Mathematical Difficulties

This chapter explores mathematics education for students with mathematical difficulties (MD) and disabilities. Academic achievement measures have remained stagnant for this student population over the past 20 years (NAEP, 2013). The authors highlight Multi-Tiered System of Support and evidence-based strategies as a means to address the unique needs of students with disabilities within inclusion and general education contexts. Common characteristics of students with MD are challenges with working memory, number sense, symbols, basic fact computational fluency, word problem solving, and self-regulation. Educators can apply these specific recommendations to enhance mathematics instruction to address the critical factors for academic success for all students, but specifically students in special education or with MD. In order to implement these evidence-based strategies and ensure specially designed instruction is being provided, co-teaching models are reviewed as one way to provide instructional support in an inclusive setting.

Behavioral and Neural Effects of Game-Based Learning on Improving Computational Fluency With Numbers

This study examines the short-term behavioral and neural effects of an educational mobile game called MathDash on computational fluency. A portable functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIR) device was used to monitor changes in the prefrontal cortices of middle school students due to game-based training. Our aim is to explore changes in neural activity at regions in the prefrontal cortex associated with the management of working memory and attentional resources due to arithmetic training with MathDash. Overall, our results indicated that playing MathDash for a short duration of time elicited behavioral improvements as well as functional changes in bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.