Weaving Womanhood into Warfare: Gender-Hybrid Narratives of Amazons Penthesilea and Diana Prince

Largely rooted in ancient Greek essentialism, Western dichotomies of masculinity and femininity have been historically used to divide the sexes and limit women’s involvement in male institutions of power. The female warrior is an anomalous case. Fictional tropes of this type, especially the Amazons of Greek mythology, embody both masculine and feminine associations to exist in the separate spheres of womanhood and military heroism. Two transhistorical Amazons—Penthesilea (from Quintus Smyrnaeus’ Posthomerica) and Diana Prince (from the 2017 film Wonder Woman)—were analyzed to explore the evolution of Western perceptions on powerful women in traditionally male spheres of influence. Guided by gender and classics theories, a thematic and narrative analysis focusing on the characters’ gender hybridity (the combination of masculine and feminine distinctions) demonstrated new understandings: Penthesilea’s story demonstrates that hybridity in antiquity reinforced the hegemonic implications of gender essentialism. Diana’s modern hybridity empowers female success in male realms. Nonetheless, both narratives establish the difficulty of crossing gendered boundaries, as compromise and defeat accompany hybridity. Comparing ancient and modern adaptations of the Amazons reveals that while women’s presence in masculine spheres remains tentative in Western society, reimagined female warriors represent increasing acceptance towards women adopting hybrid roles in public expressions of power.

Jeremiah and Inner Biblical Exegesis

Bringing inner biblical exegesis as a methodology to the study of Jeremiah has opened venues to discuss Jeremiah in two quite separate spheres: The book and its literary evolution, as well as the prophetic activity in its early oral-written stages. This chapter is aimed at presenting the great benefits and the many pitfalls that these cross-lines (of methodology and Jeremiah) provide for the study of the prophetic book, and not least, for the basic methodological presumptions of inner biblical exegesis as part of the study of intertextuality in prophetic literature. Focusing on interpretive (i.e., adaptation/actualization) techniques within the plethora of intertextual relationships, this chapter takes the utilization of pentateuchal traditions (rarely, texts) in Jeremiah as a case study, and calls to question some of the basic scholarly assumptions concerning Jeremiah: the differences of style (poetry and prose) and the options to differentiate the prophet from his followers/tradents/editors.

The Transformation Problem of Values into Prices of Production: Marx Errors or an Inattentive Reading of 'Capital'?

The author presents the results of the discovery in Marx's works of the disparate elements of the theory of the original transformation of value into prices and the establishment of the general rate of profit. These results show:(a) Marx's tables in Chapter 9 of Volume III of Capital do not represent the usual interrelated branches of the economy, but particular spheres of production, exempt from the double-counting of profits and wages, and producing only final commodities. The total value of these commodities is equal to the net social product.(b) Marx carried out the original transformation of values into prices under the condition that wages remain unchanged. As a result, the first (chief) macroeconomic equality is fulfilled—the sum of the production prices for all net social products must be equal to the sum of its values. Also is fulfilled the second macroeconomic equality—the sum of profits of all sectors forming separate spheres of production must be equal to the sum of surplus values.(c) Marx assumed that the original transformation takes place in two stages: in the first stage, average rates of profit are formed in separate spheres of production, comprising two sectors of production: A and B. Sector A produced of constant capital for the sphere's own need. Sector B releases the final product for an exchange with other particular spheres. In the second stage, is established the general rate of profit in sectors B. A property of the original conversion is some change in the level of real wages, especially noticeable when using numerical models with a few spheres of commodity production. Therefore, Marx introduces the hypothesis of mutual compensation of positive and negative deviations of prices from the values of commodities. The hypothesis is fully confirmed under the conditions of the law of large numbers.(d) Marx also explains that non-equilibrium original prices of production, in which demand and supply of final goods do not coincide, can be transformed into equilibrium prices of production. For this to happen, corresponding changes in monetary wages, prices of constant capital, and the general rate of profit are necessary. However, the attainment of equilibrium prices was regarded by Marx as a secondary issue. At equilibrium prices, only the first (chief) macroeconomic equality is fulfilled.The author in developing alternative methods of transforming value into original and equilibrium prices of production uses all of the above elements of the theory of transformation of values into production prices. First, he restores the double counting of profits and wages in Marx's table. Second, he applies an iterative procedure of sequentially establishing the average and general rate of profit in the sectors and spheres of commodity production.The paper proposes new iterative calculation algorithms in the Excel program for the original and equilibrium transformation of values into production prices. The author tested the algorithms using the Wolfram Mathematica software. He also developed a method for converting the equilibrium production prices of goods back to their initial absolute values. This method refutes the well-known “eraser algorithm” by P. Samuelson. Ultimately, the author argues that Marx does not have the errors of transformation that his critics have attributed to him for so long.

The Transformation Problem of Values into Prices of Production: Marx Errors or an Inattentive Reading of 'Capital'?

The author presents the results of the discovery in Marx's works of the disparate elements of the theory of the original transformation of value into prices and the establishment of the general rate of profit. These results show:(a) Marx's tables in Chapter 9 of Volume III of Capital do not represent the usual interrelated branches of the economy, but particular spheres of production, exempt from the double-counting of profits and wages, and producing only final commodities. The total value of these commodities is equal to the net social product.(b) Marx carried out the original transformation of values into prices under the condition that wages remain unchanged. As a result, the first (chief) macroeconomic equality is fulfilled—the sum of the production prices for all net social products must be equal to the sum of its values. Also is fulfilled the second macroeconomic equality—the sum of profits of all sectors forming separate spheres of production must be equal to the sum of surplus values.(c) Marx assumed that the original transformation takes place in two stages: in the first stage, average rates of profit are formed in separate spheres of production, comprising two sectors of production: A and B. Sector A produced of constant capital for the sphere's own need. Sector B releases the final product for an exchange with other particular spheres. In the second stage, is established the general rate of profit in sectors B. A property of the original conversion is some change in the level of real wages, especially noticeable when using numerical models with a few spheres of commodity production. Therefore, Marx introduces the hypothesis of mutual compensation of positive and negative deviations of prices from the values of commodities. The hypothesis is fully confirmed under the conditions of the law of large numbers.(d) Marx also explains that non-equilibrium original prices of production, in which demand and supply of final goods do not coincide, can be transformed into equilibrium prices of production. For this to happen, corresponding changes in monetary wages, prices of constant capital, and the general rate of profit are necessary. However, the attainment of equilibrium prices was regarded by Marx as a secondary issue. At equilibrium prices, only the first (chief) macroeconomic equality is fulfilled.The author in developing alternative methods of transforming value into original and equilibrium prices of production uses all of the above elements of the theory of transformation of values into production prices. First, he restores the double counting of profits and wages in Marx's table. Second, he applies an iterative procedure of sequentially establishing the average and general rate of profit in the sectors and spheres of commodity production.The paper proposes new iterative calculation algorithms in the Excel program for the original and equilibrium transformation of values into production prices. The author tested the algorithms using the Wolfram Mathematica software. He also developed a method for converting the equilibrium production prices of goods back to their initial absolute values. This method refutes the well-known “eraser algorithm” by P. Samuelson. Ultimately, the author argues that Marx does not have the errors of transformation that his critics have attributed to him for so long.

Transformacje męskości. Od doktryn i ideologii ku nieopresyjnym aktualizacjom

The purpose of the text is to depict masculinity evolution via two perspectives that led to describing masculinity as toxic and men – as obsolete. The first perspective presents the doctrine of separate spheres. The second is based on Men Box. Both have been a certain drive for neomasculinity or manosphere. Also, both the doctrine and the Men Box are ascribed to traditional masculinity, which was found harmful to men by American Psychological Association in 2018. Its harmfulness does not reach men solely, yet also their families and all of us as society. Initiatives directed to improve the situation meet some resistance, and plural masculinities do not find recognition among conservative milieus. Actual masculinities, free of oppressive doctrines or boxes, are important social capital. However, in order to be implemented, they need integrated actions.

English Borrowings in the Russian and Chinese Languages in the Sphere of Trade

The article examines the linguistic and cultural phenomenon of borrowing English words in the Chinese and Russian languages in the commercial sphere as a consequence of the growing influence of English in the context of globalization. Today English has become common in every country, and more and more people are beginning to speak English. Sometimes this interest is prompted by a desire to explore international culture and to travel. However, with increasing frequency, the knowledge of English is seen as necessary for professional work, because English has become a universal tool of communication in business, commerce, and international trade. This phenomenon of Anglicization is definitely present both in China and Russia, and the article looks at the vocabulary sphere which is especially vulnerable to bor-rowings: that of commercial and trade terminology. The article gives a review of phonetic borrowings from English into Chinese and Russian, focusing on the specific character of borrowings in Chinese in connection with peculiarities of the script and sounds. It also presents respective examples of borrowings in the sphere of trade, seeks to understand why English terms are borrowed into both languages, and introduces the classification by K. Palmgren which includes commercial borrowings. The author recognizes that both China and Russia are somewhat concerned about the impact of English on their languages, feeling that the increased influx of English words and phrases may pose a threat to their future development and even potentially slow it down. The influence of English on modern Chinese and Russian languages is undoubtedly significant, and, with current policy, aimed at integration into the world economy, this influence is only expected to grow. In the context of increasing commercial connections between the countries, Anglicisms continue to replace the Russian vocabulary. However, it primarily concerns the vocabulary of trade and commerce, while in daily communication English borrowings are used much more rarely. Thus, the author concludes that, although there is a tendency toward fully replacing Russian trade and commercial terms with those of English origin and, in all probability, this tendency will only be expanding, such penetration of Anglicisms into separate spheres doesn’t threaten the integrity of the language system as a whole.

Cross-national Attitudes about Paid Parental Leave Offerings for Fathers

Using cross-national data from the 2012 International Social Survey Programme (N = 33,273), this study considers institutional, self-interest, and ideational factors in analyzing public opinions about the provision, length, and source of paid parental leave offerings for fathers. We find substantial support for generous leave offerings. Multilevel regression results reveal that being a woman, supporting dual-earning expectations, and realizing more family strains lead to support for more generous leave offerings. Endorsing separate spheres and intensive mothering attitudes reduces support for more generous leave offerings; although, gendered attitudes interact with one another in predicting leave preferences, too. Finally, country-level indicators of female empowerment and father-specific leave offerings are positively associated with preferences for more generous leave offerings. Overall, public opinions about fathers’ leave offerings across OECD countries largely support policies that provide opportunities for more involved fathering, but preferences continue to be gendered and linked to family strains and country-level contexts.

Preferences for Paid Paternity Leave Availability, Lengths of Leave Offerings, and Government Funding of Paternity Leaves in the U.S.

This study analyzes 2012 General Social Survey data (N = 1,089) about preferences for paid paternity leave availability, lengths of leave offerings, and government funding of leaves. It highlights gender and gendered parenting role attitudes as predictors of leave preferences. Descriptive results revealed sizable (i.e., 53%) support for leave availability and moderate (i.e., 33%) support for some government funding; still, only modest (i.e., 5 weeks) lengths of leave offerings were desired. Regression results indicated that women were typically more likely than men to support more generous leave offerings. Consistently, dual-earner expectations were positively associated with preferences for more generous leave offerings. Separate spheres attitudes appeared to be meaningful for women’s preferences, but not for men’s preferences. Importantly, the findings from this study suggest that there have been longstanding preferences for more generous and widespread paid paternity leave offerings in the U.S.—and more public policy action is long overdue.