Functional Variation of the Imperative in Discourse: Prosodic Evidence of “Hybridization”

The cognitive-discursive approach used in experimental research helps to reveal specific behavior of language units which is conditioned by particular characteristics of the immediate communicative situation. The cognitive aspect of this approach describes how the human mind works to adapt speech production processes to ever-changing conditions of communicative activity, which results in changes of the functions of language units used in these processes. Since, either in oral or written forms, texts are the material result of this activity, acoustic analysis helps to evaluate the character of modifications of sound sequences as well as to define their intonation structure that facilitates the performance of utterances in discourse. Corpus analysis helps to evaluate pragmatic factors that maintain speech production processes and to describe their influence in the usage of language units. The relevance of the research lies in the need to have a better understanding and a more thorough description of the behavior of intonation language units in discourse as well as its correlation to the cognitive processes in speech production. With this goal in mind, the author applies the cognitive-discursive approach to experimental phonetic research of intonation in discourse. The paper presents the results of examining the process of “hybridization” of direct imperative utterances, identifying types of such “hybridization,” and looking at conditions of speakers’ activity which accompany this “hybridization.” Using the methodology of experimental discourse analysis, the author shows how functional variability of this particular language unit in specific discourse environments can lead to significant changes in the intentional meaning of the unit, i. e., to imperative utterances acting as interjections. In specific discourse environments, accompanied by marked emphasis in the semantic structure of the utterances and constrained by psycho-physiological thresholds and limitations of information processing mechanisms, speech production processes form a “hybrid” which combines characteristics of both a direct imperative and an interjection. This “hybridization” can be complete or partial. The “hybrid” maintains the illocutionary force of an imperative utterance due to its formulaic syntactic structure and intonation, characterized by less variation than that of an interjection, and the intonation of such units complies with the codified intonation standard of the English language. At the same time, its acoustic features correspond to the acoustic features of 1st and 2nd type interjections: “hybrids” that correspond to 1st type interjections consist of rare sounds and sound sequences, while “hybrids” that correspond to 2nd type interjections retain their sound structure completely or partially.

Linguistic and Cultural Poetics of German Popular Science Texts (based on U. Stumpf’s “Kräuter: Gefährten am Wegesrand”) and Resultant Translation Challenges

The article examines several aspects of linguistic and cultural poetics of German popular science texts, which in many ways shape national and cultural specifics of such texts and thus influence the process of translating them into Russian. As a distinct hybrid, popular science texts are characterized by high information density, intertextuality, and a wide range of vocabulary and style. Popular science texts create a special information space in which national and cultural specifics play a significant role. The article presents the results of the linguistic, stylistic, and cultural analysis of the German popular science work on botany by W. Stumpf “Kräuter: Gefährten am Wegesrand,” The strongly marked linguistic and cultural poetics of this text is largely determined by the peculiarity of botany as a field of knowledge: namely the knowledge of herbs, based on discoveries of ancient botanists, on folk knowledge, and on the personal experience of the author. At the lexical level, the linguo-cultural specifics are most clearly manifested in the nominations of plants: etymologically interesting phytonyms, their synonymic chains, and lexical gaps identified in the translation process. As a cross between scientific, journalistic, and literary texts, popular science texts display features of all these styles, which also determines the density of their linguistic and cultural poetics. The article provides a translation of several passages into Russian in order to demonstrate some of the challenges in translating popular science texts while taking into account their national and cultural specifics. The results of the study can be used both in teaching German as a foreign language and in translation courses at all levels of general and professional education as well as in developing textbooks, thematic dictionaries, and botanical glossaries.

English Borrowings in the Russian and Chinese Languages in the Sphere of Trade

The article examines the linguistic and cultural phenomenon of borrowing English words in the Chinese and Russian languages in the commercial sphere as a consequence of the growing influence of English in the context of globalization. Today English has become common in every country, and more and more people are beginning to speak English. Sometimes this interest is prompted by a desire to explore international culture and to travel. However, with increasing frequency, the knowledge of English is seen as necessary for professional work, because English has become a universal tool of communication in business, commerce, and international trade. This phenomenon of Anglicization is definitely present both in China and Russia, and the article looks at the vocabulary sphere which is especially vulnerable to bor-rowings: that of commercial and trade terminology. The article gives a review of phonetic borrowings from English into Chinese and Russian, focusing on the specific character of borrowings in Chinese in connection with peculiarities of the script and sounds. It also presents respective examples of borrowings in the sphere of trade, seeks to understand why English terms are borrowed into both languages, and introduces the classification by K. Palmgren which includes commercial borrowings. The author recognizes that both China and Russia are somewhat concerned about the impact of English on their languages, feeling that the increased influx of English words and phrases may pose a threat to their future development and even potentially slow it down. The influence of English on modern Chinese and Russian languages is undoubtedly significant, and, with current policy, aimed at integration into the world economy, this influence is only expected to grow. In the context of increasing commercial connections between the countries, Anglicisms continue to replace the Russian vocabulary. However, it primarily concerns the vocabulary of trade and commerce, while in daily communication English borrowings are used much more rarely. Thus, the author concludes that, although there is a tendency toward fully replacing Russian trade and commercial terms with those of English origin and, in all probability, this tendency will only be expanding, such penetration of Anglicisms into separate spheres doesn’t threaten the integrity of the language system as a whole.

Raskolnikov on the Way to ‘Holy Russia’: Hermeneutics of Raskolnikov’s Image in F. M. Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment

The image of Raskolnikov in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel Crime and Punishment has been widely researched and commented upon. However, suggesting a particular approach to the material — that of hermeneutic linguistics — and focusing on the problem of holiness (two essential principles of this article) provide new results in understanding the content of Raskolnikov’s image, the direction of its development, and the inner plot of the novel’s epilogue. The paper focuses on defining markers of the idea of ‘Holy Russia’ in the image of Rodion Raskolnikov as well as the role of ‘holy’ symbols both in its own development, and, through it, in the novel’s overall plot. Particular attention is paid to intertextual connections of the novel with the New Testament and established prayers, as well as to temporal and topic religious symbols referring to the hero. The paper argues that both the ideals of ‘Holy Russia’ and Dostoevsky’s ‘Russian idea’ play a significant role in the development of the plot and the hero’s character. It also analyzes the connection of the hero’s inner journey (his spiritual and moral fall and his later rebirth) with embodying the ‘Russian idea’ in the image of an intellectual in the novel. The hermeneutic research demonstrates that Dostoevsky, bringing his hero through the abyss of ‘theoretical’ temptation, inner schism, and jail, discovers in him those powers that can become sources of transformation for his soul and his life, putting him on the way to holiness. The image of Raskolnikov appears to be charged with meanings connected with the ideals of ‘Holy Russia’ both in terms of individual transformation (the way to holiness) and in terms of social unity (the way to self-sacrificial service, mutual Christian love, and the common good).

Main Challenges of Teaching the Chinese Particle了 to Russian-speaking Students at Elementary Level

The particle 了 is a commonly used word in the Chinese language. Since the particle 了 is a structure word, it does not carry any semantic meaning, but it has many grammatical meanings and is used in a variety of ways. Due to the large number of its grammatical meanings and complexity of its grammatical functions, it poses certain challenges for both teachers when explaining the material and students when using it. This especially concerns Russian-speaking students due to significant differences in the grammar of Russian and Chinese. This article examines several classifications of the particle 了, described in Chinese and Russian textbooks and focuses on grammatical features of the particle 了 depending on its position in the middle and at the end of the sentence, as well as its simultaneous use of both in the middle and at the end of the sentence. The article also describes the particle’s main grammatical meanings, such as: completeness of an action, change of an action or a situation, emphasis on something, duration of an action, a way of expressing tact, and a few others. The authors analyze the most common mistakes made by Russian-speaking elementary level students when using the particle, basing their analysis on many years of their teaching experience. Among the mistakes, they highlight such as excessive use, insufficient use, and use of the particle 了 in the wrong place. Excessive use includes mistakes such using the particle 了 in negative sentences with the adverb 没, in an objective description of past events, facts, or in characteristic judgments and descriptions; with verbs followed by a predicative object; after the first verb in a sequential sentence; with verbs showing an action of a constant or repetitive nature, as well as in various constructions which exclude its use. Insufficient use includes mistakes when learners construct incomplete sentences without the 了 particle in cases where its use is required for correct meaning or for a grammatically correct construction. Mistakes where the particle 了 is used in the wrong place occur if students do not understand the specifics of verb connections in the sentence.

Rhetorical Codes of Political Discourse: the Realization of the Strategic Potential of Acrothesis

Pragmatics and expressiveness of texts are formed through rhetorical devices. However, when evaluating the potential of specific rhetorical devices, one should consider the discourse characteristics of the text. Modern linguistics draws attention to the suggestive nature of the rhe-torical devices that form the structure of utterances. In this regard, there is an increasing interest in in-depth analysis of rhetorical techniques used to implement high impact strategies. A systematic study of rhetorical devices within a certain discourse would give a clearer idea of their rhetorical function. Specific strategies can be understood by examining rhetorical devices in the context of the pragmatics and the genre of a given text. Thus, information about a specific rhetorical device is converted from separate independent facts into a conditional sign unity, or a code. Given the discourse specificity of this code, linguists describe it as “rhetorical.” By analyzing the text, we identify the rhetorical code of the discourse in question. The more rhetorical devices used in the discourse are considered, the more rhetorical codes can be used to form new speech strategies. In this article, we consider the implementation of acrothesis in political discourse. Acrothesis is a rhetorical device based on the relationship of affirming something at the expense of denying its opposite. It is implemented through utilizing homogeneous members of the sentence with the obligatory negation of the opposite in meaning. Perceiving the structure and content of the rhetorical device reveals the perlocutionary purpose of the utterance, and analyzing the rhetorical device allows us to understand its properties and to identify which speech strategies are implemented by using acrothesis. Primarily, these are strategies of persuasion, persuasion, and manipulation. Principles of implementing speech strategies are important for understanding the structure of political discourse.

On Typology of Pragmatic Adaptation in Specialized Translation

The paper views pragmatic adaptation through the prism of the communicative and functional theory of translation. It substantiates the applicability of pragmatic adaptation as a translation tactic in translating not only literary but also specialized (non-fiction) texts. The relevance of this research lies in the need to identify linguistic and extralinguistic factors which determine the use of pragmatic adaptation when translating a specialized text in a certain communicative situation. Although some translation studies experts justly consider pragmatic adaptation to be a translation solution applicable at any language level, the authors of this paper share the traditional point of view which sees pragmatic adaptation as a means aimed at solving primarily lexical problems by using various translation operations (addition, omission, generalization, concretization, and substitution). This approach allows the authors to offer their own typology of pragmatic adaptation, which comprises additive, omissive, and substitutive pragmatic adaptation.

On Realizing the Pragmatic Potential of Educational Prescripts

The article analyses the new Federal Educational Standards in Linguistics, the basic regulatory document for higher education which formulates norms and prescriptions with the goal of effective implementation of its objectives and requirements. It is common knowledge that the efficiency of such implementation depends on how accurately these prescripts are worded so that there are no inconsistencies or conflicting interpretations. It means that the authors of these Standards must provide for the optimal transfer, reproduction, and regulation of these prescripts and competencies and thus foresee the pragmatics of the educational discourse. The aim of the study is to identify the extent to which the Educational Standards’ pragmatic potential can be realized. The study is based on the fundamental principles of pragmatics as an instrument for combining ideal formulas with real factors that contribute to their implementation. Using content, discursive, and interpretive analysis, the authors find that there are significant contradictions between the Standards’ prescripts and the feasibility of the required results. One of the reasons for this discrepancy lies in the ambiguity of wording and interpreting of the basic categories and the resulting conflict between overlapping or complementary categories — all of which inevitably leads to differences in how they are perceived. Universities could actualize the educational discourse pragmatic potential much more effectively, if the pragmatic relations and educational objectives were more transparently defined and intercorrelated to finally implement a related pragmatic adaptation regarding types of competencies.

Musical Competence and Second Language Learning

In recent years, we have witnessed a renewal of interest in the language — music relationship due to the development of cognitive science and the advent of brain imaging methods, such as positron emission tomography, functional magnetic resonance imaging, magnetoencephalography, electroencephalography, and event-related brain potentials, which has led to a number of major discoveries. The relationship between music and language has been examined from many different perspectives. Taken together, these findings indicate that musical competence positively influences some aspects of speech processing, from auditory perception to speech production and may benefit second language acquisition. In this review, we focus on the main results of the current research, discuss several interpretations that may account for the influence of musical competence on speech processing in native and foreign languages, and propose new directions for future research.