The Transformation Problem of Values into Prices of Production: Marx Errors or an Inattentive Reading of 'Capital'?

The author presents the results of the discovery in Marx's works of the disparate elements of the theory of the original transformation of value into prices and the establishment of the general rate of profit. These results show:(a) Marx's tables in Chapter 9 of Volume III of Capital do not represent the usual interrelated branches of the economy, but particular spheres of production, exempt from the double-counting of profits and wages, and producing only final commodities. The total value of these commodities is equal to the net social product.(b) Marx carried out the original transformation of values into prices under the condition that wages remain unchanged. As a result, the first (chief) macroeconomic equality is fulfilled—the sum of the production prices for all net social products must be equal to the sum of its values. Also is fulfilled the second macroeconomic equality—the sum of profits of all sectors forming separate spheres of production must be equal to the sum of surplus values.(c) Marx assumed that the original transformation takes place in two stages: in the first stage, average rates of profit are formed in separate spheres of production, comprising two sectors of production: A and B. Sector A produced of constant capital for the sphere's own need. Sector B releases the final product for an exchange with other particular spheres. In the second stage, is established the general rate of profit in sectors B. A property of the original conversion is some change in the level of real wages, especially noticeable when using numerical models with a few spheres of commodity production. Therefore, Marx introduces the hypothesis of mutual compensation of positive and negative deviations of prices from the values of commodities. The hypothesis is fully confirmed under the conditions of the law of large numbers.(d) Marx also explains that non-equilibrium original prices of production, in which demand and supply of final goods do not coincide, can be transformed into equilibrium prices of production. For this to happen, corresponding changes in monetary wages, prices of constant capital, and the general rate of profit are necessary. However, the attainment of equilibrium prices was regarded by Marx as a secondary issue. At equilibrium prices, only the first (chief) macroeconomic equality is fulfilled.The author in developing alternative methods of transforming value into original and equilibrium prices of production uses all of the above elements of the theory of transformation of values into production prices. First, he restores the double counting of profits and wages in Marx's table. Second, he applies an iterative procedure of sequentially establishing the average and general rate of profit in the sectors and spheres of commodity production.The paper proposes new iterative calculation algorithms in the Excel program for the original and equilibrium transformation of values into production prices. The author tested the algorithms using the Wolfram Mathematica software. He also developed a method for converting the equilibrium production prices of goods back to their initial absolute values. This method refutes the well-known “eraser algorithm” by P. Samuelson. Ultimately, the author argues that Marx does not have the errors of transformation that his critics have attributed to him for so long.

The Transformation Problem of Values into Prices of Production: Marx Errors or an Inattentive Reading of 'Capital'?

The author presents the results of the discovery in Marx's works of the disparate elements of the theory of the original transformation of value into prices and the establishment of the general rate of profit. These results show:(a) Marx's tables in Chapter 9 of Volume III of Capital do not represent the usual interrelated branches of the economy, but particular spheres of production, exempt from the double-counting of profits and wages, and producing only final commodities. The total value of these commodities is equal to the net social product.(b) Marx carried out the original transformation of values into prices under the condition that wages remain unchanged. As a result, the first (chief) macroeconomic equality is fulfilled—the sum of the production prices for all net social products must be equal to the sum of its values. Also is fulfilled the second macroeconomic equality—the sum of profits of all sectors forming separate spheres of production must be equal to the sum of surplus values.(c) Marx assumed that the original transformation takes place in two stages: in the first stage, average rates of profit are formed in separate spheres of production, comprising two sectors of production: A and B. Sector A produced of constant capital for the sphere's own need. Sector B releases the final product for an exchange with other particular spheres. In the second stage, is established the general rate of profit in sectors B. A property of the original conversion is some change in the level of real wages, especially noticeable when using numerical models with a few spheres of commodity production. Therefore, Marx introduces the hypothesis of mutual compensation of positive and negative deviations of prices from the values of commodities. The hypothesis is fully confirmed under the conditions of the law of large numbers.(d) Marx also explains that non-equilibrium original prices of production, in which demand and supply of final goods do not coincide, can be transformed into equilibrium prices of production. For this to happen, corresponding changes in monetary wages, prices of constant capital, and the general rate of profit are necessary. However, the attainment of equilibrium prices was regarded by Marx as a secondary issue. At equilibrium prices, only the first (chief) macroeconomic equality is fulfilled.The author in developing alternative methods of transforming value into original and equilibrium prices of production uses all of the above elements of the theory of transformation of values into production prices. First, he restores the double counting of profits and wages in Marx's table. Second, he applies an iterative procedure of sequentially establishing the average and general rate of profit in the sectors and spheres of commodity production.The paper proposes new iterative calculation algorithms in the Excel program for the original and equilibrium transformation of values into production prices. The author tested the algorithms using the Wolfram Mathematica software. He also developed a method for converting the equilibrium production prices of goods back to their initial absolute values. This method refutes the well-known “eraser algorithm” by P. Samuelson. Ultimately, the author argues that Marx does not have the errors of transformation that his critics have attributed to him for so long.

Analisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi ekspor kopi Indonesia ke Jepang Periode 2000-2017

This study aims to analyze the development of Indonesian coffee exports to Japan, Indonesian coffee production, world coffee prices, and the rupiah exchange rate against the dollar for the period 2000-2017, as well as to analyze the effect of Indonesian coffee production, world coffee prices and the rupiah exchange rate against the dollar on coffee exports. Indonesia to Japan for the period 2000-2017. This research uses descriptive and quantitative analytical methods. The descriptive analysis method is used to analyze the development of each research variable. The quantitative analysis method is used to analyze the influence of independent variables on variables. Based on the results of the study, it was found that the development of Indonesian coffee exports to Japan from 2000-2017 averaged -3.81%, the development of Indonesian coffee production in 2000-2017 averaged 0.99%, the development of world coffee prices 2000-2017 averaged 6.40% and the development of the rupiah exchange rate against the dollar for the period 2000-2017 2.54%. And during the 2000-2017 period, Indonesian coffee production and the exchange rate of the rupiah against the dollar had a significant effect on Indonesian coffee exports to Japan, while world coffee prices had no significant effect on Indonesian coffee exports to Japan. Keywords: Exports, Production, Prices, Exchange rates

Relations between Electronics, Artificial Intelligence and Information Society through Information Society Rules

This paper presents relations between information society (IS), electronics and artificial intelligence (AI) mainly through twenty-four IS laws. The laws not only make up a novel collection, currently non-existing in the literature, but they also highlight the core boosting mechanism for the progress of what is called the information society and AI. The laws mainly describe the exponential growth in a particular field, be it the processing, storage or transmission capabilities of electronic devices. Other rules describe the relations to production prices and human interaction. Overall, the IS laws illustrate the most recent and most vibrant part of human history based on the unprecedented growth of device capabilities spurred by human innovation and ingenuity. Although there are signs of stalling, at the same time there are still many ways to prolong the fascinating progress of electronics that stimulates the field of artificial intelligence. There are constant leaps in new areas, such as the perception of real-world signals, where AI is already occasionally exceeding human capabilities and will do so even more in the future. In some areas where AI is presumed to be incapable of performing even at a modest level, such as the production of art or programming software, AI is making progress that can sometimes reflect true human skills. Maybe it is time for AI to boost the progress of electronics in return.

analisis data berkala menggunakan metode semi average

Data collected from time to time to describe the development of an activity (development of production, prices, sales results, population, number of accidents, number of crimes, etc.). Trend (T) (or secular trend) is a long-term movement that shows a trend towards one direction of increase and decrease as a whole over the past 10 years, trends are very useful for making forecasts. The methods commonly used include the Semi Average Method and the Least Square Method. Group the data into two groups with the same number of years and number of periodic series. Calculate the semi-total for each group by adding up the periodic series values for each group. Find the average computed for each group to get the semi average. To determine the linear trend value for certain years, it can be formulated as follows: Y '= periodic data (time

Pengaruh Sistem Kartel terhadap Stabilitas Persaingan Usaha di Indonesia

A cartel is an agreement made by a business actor with its competitors to gain excessive profits, which is stated in article 11 of Law No. 5 of 1999 concerning anti-monopoly and unfair business competition in Indonesia, the influence of cartels in business competition can cause unfair competition, damage market stability, and shut down competition in a particular market. The objectives presented in this study are to determine the forms of cartels that usually occur in limiting unfair business competition in Indonesia, and to determine the factors used by KPPU in identifying early indicators of cartel systems. This study uses a normative legal method with rationality which examines the influence of the cartel system on the stability of business competition in Indonesia, which appears to have experienced norm blur. The data source used in solving problems is the statutory approach. Literatures, journals and various related documents. The results of the discussion show that cartels have several types, namely regional cartels, production, prices, conditions, profit sharing, the influence of the cartel system in business competition which has a negative impact which causes unfair business competition, as well as harms various parties ranging from business actors, consumers, to the government. Then, in identifying the occurrence of cartels, there are several factors used by KPPU, namely structural factors consisting of the level of market concentration, number of companies, company size, homogeneity of goods or services, multi-market contacts, supply and production capacity, ownership linkages, ease of entry. specific market share, the character of demand. The next factor is the behavioral factor which is divided into two parts, starting from transparency and information exchange.

Energy Yield Generated by a Small Building Integrated Photovoltaic Installation

In the recent years photovoltaic (PV) industry has experienced a major growth, caused by the ever present annual decrease in module production prices and the expanding awareness of the general public in terms of renewable energy. There are numerous ways to implement PV modules as an additional energy source for a building, be it mounted on the rooftop, or building integrated (BIPV). An analysis of BIPV consisting of 8 modules with the power of 250 Wp each was carried out for the building of the Chemistry Faculty of Gdansk University of Technology (GUT). It included monthly irradiance and energy generation values and compared them to data obtained by the means of PV-GIS system, after inserting site specific coordinates. Additional research on the same type of a single module with the power of 270 Wp was conducted to provide more insight in this matter. A comprehensible analysis allows for defining a final conclusion for the decrease in energy yield for GUT BIPV installation. Data outputs are lower than expected based on PV-GIS values, as for the most time the facade mounted PV system experiences partial soft shading from the nearby park. Furthermore, it is not located directly facing south, but rather south-east which does not prompt ideal working conditions.

ANALYSIS OF THE CALCULATION OF PRODUCTION COSTS AND SELLING PRICES IN UD. BINA USAHA BAGUSARI

Business (company) is an organization that provides a variety of goods or services for sale with the aim of obtaining profits. Accounting calculations on companies are needed at the production price and selling price at a company. In this case then direct this research in the calculation of production prices and selling prices. The data needed in this study can be obtained through documentation and field research. The data obtained in this analysis uses the Descriptive Quantitative method, based on the analysis shows that the calculation of production costs and selling prices using the calculation method carried out by the UD with the calculation of production costs using the variable costing method is lower than the calculations made by the company. Because the variable costing method calculates the variable costs associated with the production process and selling prices while the calculation method applied by the company lists all costs including variable overhead costs and fixed overhead costs. So that there is a difference in production costs and selling prices according to company methods and variable costing methods.

PERENCANAAN DAN PENGENDALIAN BIAYA PRODUKSI UNTUK MENINGKATKAN EFISIENSI BIAYA PRODUKSI

Efforts to maximize the optimization of production costs in a plan and control production costs is to reduce costs to the maximum extent possible to provide maximum profits, so the sugar factory must manage its production activities effectively and efficiently. This activity has the intention to describe the planning and management of production costs as a goal that intends to increase the efficiency of production prices at PT. PG Pesantren Baru Keiri. The research method used in this research is to explain with a case approach to PT. New PG Pesantren, sampling with interviews and taking pictures or recordings. From the results of research or thoughts that have been carried out it can be concluded that the production cost budget is still inefficient. The contributing factor to this is the weak protection of global production costs, so that it cannot minimize the elimination of production costs organized by irresponsible elements. Keywords: Planning, Control, Production Costs Usaha untuk yang digunakan pada proses produksi akan berkaitan dengan perencanaan yang berasumsi pada pengendalian bahan baku yang berguna mengurangi biaya produksi untuk menambah laba pada produksi di pabrik PT. PG Pesantren Baru Kediri. Pada penelitian yang saat ini sudah mencapai hasil dengan asumsi bahwa aktivitas produksi harus bias dilakukan agar efektif serta dapat mencapai efisiensi.Metode penelitian yang dipakai pada riset ini yaitu menjelaskan dengan pendekatan kasus pada PT. PG Pesantren baru, pengambilan sampel dengan interview dan pengambilan gambar atau rekaman. Dari hasil riset atau pemikiran yang telah dilaksanakan dapat di ambil kesimpulan bahwa budget biaya produksi masih tidak efisien. Yang terjadi pada sarana kelemahan pengamanan pada biaya produksi harus diglobalkan supaya terjadi kehilangan biaya prduksi yang minimal. Kata kunci : Perencanaan, Pengendalian, Biaya Produksi