The millstone trade from the most exploited Italian volcanic areas: an overview from the phoenicians to the roman period

Lavas were widely used in antiquity to produce millstones. This is mainly due to their superior properties for grinding cereals and availability when compared with other rock-types. In the past four decades, several studies have been published about lava millstones discovered in subaerial and submarine archaeological sites of the Central-Western Mediterranean. Although the morphological evidence of old quarries is rarely present, all these studies were aimed at recognizing provenance and manufacturing areas of the volcanic raw material. Typologies of grinding tools coexisted in different periods, even if some technological developments marked transitions between cultures. The main chronology is: Archaic saddle quern, Greek hopper-rubber (Olynthian), small to medium size rotary device (Morgantina type) and large hourglass rotary millstone (Pompeian style). Potential volcanic sources are widespread throughout the entire Mediterranean region, but two main Italian quarrying areas of volcanic rocks for the manufacture of millstones from the Phoenician to the Roman period were pointed out. These are the Latium-Umbria border in Central Italy, and Sicily (Eastern Sicily and Sicilian Channel) in Southern Italy. In detail, analysis of the lava lithotypes shows that grinding tools were mainly constructed of: (i) a leucite phonolite of the so called “Orvieto quarries” between the localities of Sugano and Buonviaggio in the Roman Volcanic Province (High-K alkaline series); (ii) hawaiites and mugearites (Na-alkaline series) from Etna volcano; (iii) basalts (Tholeiitic/Transitional series) of the Hyblaean Mountains and (iv) basalts (Na-alkaline series) from Pantelleria Island (Sicilian Channel). Although some lava millstones from other volcanic regions are recorded, the above four Italian volcanic rock types represent the most exploited in antiquity. A comparison between volcanic millstones and outcropping lavas already exists, from literature data, through thin section modal mineralogy and conventional igneous petrology (i.e., TAS classification, magmatic affinities, and major-trace elements signature). Therefore, on this basis we propose a set of discriminating geochemical parameters (major-trace elements and element ratios diagrams) useful for a quick assessment tool to possibly evaluate one of these four exploited volcanic areas of Italy matching millstones. A sketch of volcanic millstone trade networks and commercial routes in antiquity throughout the Central-Western Mediterranean has been also reported and overviewed on the basis of the literature data.

Emplacement and Segment Geometry of Large, High-Viscosity Magmatic Sheets

Understanding magma transport in sheet intrusions is crucial to interpreting volcanic unrest. Studies of dyke emplacement and geometry focus predominantly on low-viscosity, mafic dykes. Here, we present an in-depth study of two high-viscosity dykes (106 Pa·s) in the Chachahuén volcano, Argentina, the Great Dyke and the Sosa Dyke. To quantify dyke geometries, magma flow indicators, and magma viscosity, we combine photogrammetry, microstructural analysis, igneous petrology, Fourier-Transform-Infrared-Spectroscopy, and Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility (AMS). Our results show that the dykes consist of 3 to 8 mappable segments up to 2 km long. Segments often end in a bifurcation, and segment tips are predominantly oval, but elliptical tips occur in the outermost segments of the Great Dyke. Furthermore, variations in host rocks have no observable impact on dyke geometry. AMS fabrics and other flow indicators in the Sosa Dyke show lateral magma flow in contrast to the vertical flow suggested by the segment geometries. A comparison with segment geometries of low-viscosity dykes shows that our high-viscosity dykes follow the same geometrical trend. In fact, the data compilation supports that dyke segment and tip geometries reflect different stages in dyke emplacement, questioning the current usage for final sheet geometries as proxies for emplacement mechanism.

Oxidized Mantle Sources of HIMU and EM-type Ocean Island Basalts

Oxygen fugacity (fO2) is a fundamental variable in igneous petrology with utility as a potential tracer of recycled surficial materials in the sources of mantle-derived lavas. It has been postulated that ocean island basalts (OIB) have elevated fO2 relative to mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) owing to more oxidized source regions. To clarify this issue, trace-element systematics of olivine grains are reported from OIB lavas with HIMU (high-; Mangaia, Canary Islands), enriched mantle (EM; Samoa; São Miguel, Azores Islands) and depleted MORB mantle (DMM; Pico, Azores) Sr-Nd-Pb-Os isotopic signatures, to constrain the fO2 of each magmatic system. Despite sampling distinct mantle reservoirs based on radiogenic isotope systematics, these OIB suites show similar fO2, ranging from +1.5 to +2.9 FMQ, with an average of 2.0 ± 0.7 FMQ, significantly higher than MORB at +0.6 ± 0.2 FMQ using the same oxybarometer. OIBs show no correlation between fO2 and bulk rock isotopic ratios or parental magma compositions. The lack of correlations with isotopic signatures likely results from radiogenic isotope signatures being hosted in volumetrically minor trace element enriched mantle lithologies, while fO2 reflects the volumetrically dominant mantle component. Higher fO2 in OIB relative to MORB implies a uniformly oxidizing plume source mantle that may be the result of either a common oxidized oceanic crust-rich reservoir parental to all modern plume lavas, or preservation of un-degassed and oxidized mantle domains formed early in Earth history.

Defects in olivine

Olivine, a ferromagnesian orthosilicate, is the most abundant mineral in Earth's upper mantle and is stable down to the olivine–wadsleyite phase transition, which defines the 410 km depth mantle transition zone. Olivine also occurs in crustal environments in metamorphic and hydrothermal rocks and is expected to be the major mineral constituent of the Martian and Venusian mantles. The olivine atomic structure is also used in materials science to manufacture lithium batteries. Like any other crystalline solid, including minerals, olivine never occurs with a perfect crystalline structure: defects in various dimensions are ubiquitous, from point, line, and planar defects to three-dimensional (3-D) inclusions. In this contribution, I review the current state of the art of defects in olivine and several implications for key processes occurring in Earth's mantle. Intrinsic and extrinsic point defects are detailed, exemplifying the astonishing diversity of atomic impurities in mantle-derived olivine. Linear defects, one of the key defect types responsible for ductile deformation in crystalline solids, are examined in light of recent progress in 3-D transmission electron microscopy, which has revealed an important diversity of dislocation slip systems. I summarize the principal characteristics of interface defects in olivine: the free surface, grain and interface boundaries, and internal planar defects. As the least-studied defects to date, interface defects represent an important challenge for future studies and are the main application of numerical simulation methods in materials science. I provide an overview of melt, fluid, and mineral inclusions, which are widely studied in volcanology and igneous petrology. Special attention is given to new crystalline defects that act as deformation agents: disclinations (rotational defects) and the potential occurrence of disconnections in olivine, both of which are expected to occur along or near grain boundaries. Finally, I detail outstanding questions and research directions that will further our understanding of the crystalline specificities and paradoxes of olivine and olivine-rich rocks and ultimately their implications for the dynamics of Earth's upper mantle.

Long Walks, Lost Documents and the Birthplace of Igneous Petrology: Exploring Glen Tilt, Perthshire, Scotland

The spectacular angular unconformity at Siccar Point is the most famous site associated with James Hutton (1726–1797), but it was not his only place of insight. In 1785, three years before he discovered Siccar Point, Hutton examined outcrops in the still-remote valley of Glen Tilt, in the Scottish Highlands. He documented contact relationships between Precambrian metasedimentary rocks and Paleozoic granite bodies, although he had no knowledge of their true ages. Near to the hunting lodge where he and his colleague John Clerk of Eldin stayed, veins of granite clearly cut through relict bedding in the stratified rocks and disrupt their layering, breaking apart individual strata and leaving fragments (xenoliths) surrounded by granite. Hutton correctly deduced that the granite must originally have been in a ‘state of fusion’ and was forcefully injected into much older ‘schistus’. Such conclusions contravened prevailing ideas that granite bodies formed from aqueous solutions, and also refuted a wider philosophical view that granite and other crystalline rocks were the oldest and first-created parts of the Earth. Hutton’s key outcrops in Glen Tilt are easy to visit, although they do require a long (but easy) roundtrip hike of some 25 km. These are certainly not the most spectacular intrusion breccias that I have ever seen, but they are very instructive, and were very influential, because they sparked a long, and at times acrimonious, debate about the origins of igneous rocks and especially granite. This controversy had many strange twists and turns. These include the disappearance of Hutton’s original manuscript after his death, and its serendipitous rediscovery a century later, and the similar loss and rediscovery of exquisite drawings by John Clerk, almost two centuries after they were first penned. Among the lost drawings is an early example of detailed outcrop-scale mapping, which would become a key field-work technique. Hutton’s vision of granite as the product of hot, liquid material that moved upward in the Earth’s crust (plutonism) eventually prevailed over the idea that crystalline rocks formed from a primordial ocean that once enveloped the Earth (neptunism), but this victory did not come easily or quickly. In another strange twist of history, new evidence from the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa eventually acted to further the plutonist cause. Glen Tilt has changed very little since the time of Hutton, but the observations that were made here, and the long debate that followed, brought fundamental changes in our understanding of the Earth. Although Siccar Point should remain the first entry on the bucket list of any prospective geopilgrim to Scotland, the long and beautiful valley of the River Tilt should also be a priority. RÉSUMÉLa spectaculaire discordance angulaire de Siccar Point est le site le plus célèbre associé à James Hutton (1726–1797), mais ce n'était pas le seul lieu qui l’ait inspiré. En 1785, trois ans avant de découvrir Siccar Point, Hutton a examiné des affleurements dans la vallée encore enclavée de Glen Tilt, dans les Highlands écossais. Il a documenté les contacts entre les roches métasédimentaires précambriennes et les corps granitiques du Paléozoïque, bien qu'il ne connût pas leur véritable âge. Près du pavillon de chasse où lui et son collègue John Clerk of Eldin ont séjourné, des veines de granit ont clairement percé le litage relique dans les roches stratifiées et perturbé leur superposition, brisant les strates individuelles et laissant des fragments (xénolithes) entourés de granit. Hutton a correctement déduit que le granit devait à l'origine être dans un « état de fusion » et qu'il avait été injecté de force dans des « schistes » beaucoup plus anciens. De telles conclusions contrevenaient aux idées dominantes selon lesquelles des corps granitiques se formaient à partir de solutions aqueuses et réfutaient également une vision philosophique plus large selon laquelle le granit et d'autres roches cristallines étaient les parties de la Terre les plus anciennes et les premières créées. Les principaux affleurements de Hutton à Glen Tilt sont faciles à visiter, bien qu'ils nécessitent une longue randonnée (mais facile) d'environ 25 km aller et retour. Ce ne sont certainement pas les brèches d'intrusion les plus spectaculaires que je n’ai jamais vues, mais elles sont très instructives et ont eu un rôle très influent, car elles ont déclenché un long débat, parfois acrimonieux, sur les origines des roches ignées et en particulier du granit. Cette controverse a eu de nombreux rebondissements étranges. Ceux-ci incluent la disparition du manuscrit original de Hutton après sa mort, et sa redécouverte fortuite un siècle plus tard, et la perte et la redécouverte similaires de dessins remarquables de John Clerk, près de deux siècles après qu’ils aient été esquissés. Parmi les dessins perdus, se trouve un premier exemple de cartographie détaillée à l'échelle des affleurements, qui deviendra une technique clé de travail sur le terrain.La vision de Hutton du granit en tant que produit d'un matériau chaud et liquide qui s'est déplacé vers le haut dans la croûte terrestre (plutonisme) a finalement prévalu sur l'idée que des roches cristallines se sont formées à partir d'un océan primordial qui enveloppait autrefois la Terre (neptunisme), mais cette victoire n'est pas venue facilement ou rapidement. Dans une autre tournure étrange de l'histoire, de nouvelles preuves provenant du Cap de Bonne-Espérance en Afrique du Sud ont fini par faire avancer la cause plutoniste. Glen Tilt a très peu changé depuis l'époque de Hutton, mais les observations qui ont été faites ici, et le long débat qui a suivi, ont apporté des changements fondamentaux dans notre compréhension de la Terre. Bien que Siccar Point devrait rester en haut de la liste des lieux à visiter de tout visiteur potentiel lors d’un pèlerinage géologique en Écosse, la longue et belle vallée de la rivière Tilt devrait également être une priorité.

Magmas are the Largest Repositories and Carriers of Earth’s Redox Processes

Magma is the most important chemical transport agent throughout our planet. This paper provides an overview of the interplay between magma redox, major element chemistry, and crystal and volatile content, and of the influence of redox on the factors that drive igneous system dynamics. Given the almost infinite combinations of temperature, pressure, and chemical compositions relevant to igneous petrology, we focus on the concepts and methods that redox geochemistry provides to understand magma formation, ascent, evolution and crystallization. Particular attention is paid to the strong and complex interplay between melt structure and chemistry, and to the influence that redox conditions have on melt properties, crystallization mechanisms and the solubility of volatile components.

Magma transport in the shallow crust – the dykes of the Chachahuén volcanic complex (Argentina)

<p>Recent eruptions such as the Kilauea 2018 (fissure) eruption on Hawaii are the result of magma intruding into Earth’s crust and ascending towards the surface. Magma is dominantly transported, through the shallow crust in form of vertical sheet intrusions (dykes). Even though dyke propagation and emplacement has been monitored with geodetic and geophysical methods, direct observations of subsurface intrusion processes remain inaccessible due to the hazardous nature of active volcanic and igneous systems. Therefore, we studied the extinct and eroded volcanic system of the Chachahuén volcanic complex (CVC) in Argentina to investigate the scale and physical mechanisms of magma transport in volcanic and igneous plumbing systems.</p><p>The Chachahuén volcanic complex is located in the northern part of the Neuquén Basin, east of the southern volcanic zone (SVZ) of the Andes. A decline in volcanic activity during the Quaternary and erosion have exposed the shallow part of the Miocene CVC’s plumbing system, including two major vertical sheet intrusions: (1) the Great Dyke and (2) the Sosa Dyke.</p><p>The objective of this ongoing study is to characterize the mechanisms of magma transport within the two exposed dykes to better understand the physical processes during their emplacement. We apply a multiscale approach combining field work and state-of-the-art analytical techniques, i.e., drone/ground-based photogrammetry, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) and Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility (AMS), with traditional geological methods, i.e., microstructural analysis and igneous petrology. Thus, we can investigate the effect of magma rheology (small-scale) on the outer shape and morphology of the dykes (large-scale).</p><p>Our results using high-resolution 3D outcrop models show a segmentation of the investigated dykes. Each of these dyke segments shows blunt ends. This suggests either the emplacement of a highly viscous magma or a weak brittle host rock. Flow features identified with AMS analysis indicate a dominantly lateral magma transport within the dykes. To estimate the magma viscosity during emplacement FTIR (H2O content of the initial melt), and microstructural analysis (for crystallinity) are performed at the moment. These analyses in combination with a map of the host rock and, the dyke morphologies, will help to characterize the dominantly controlling mechanism(s) of magma emplacements in the CVC. Finally, the new findings from this project will contribute to the general understanding on how the physical properties of the magma affect the shape of magma bodies and magma flow in the Earth’s shallow crust.</p>