Optimization Model of Transit Route Fleet Size Considering Multi Vehicle Type

This paper proposes a bus line capacity optimization design model considering the scale of multiple vehicles, which is achieved by minimizing system operating costs and user costs. The proposed model takes into account the difference of passenger demand in different periods, and can get the optimal headway and delivery and reserve plan. In order to prove that the method can effectively minimize the cost, we solved a numerical example and compared the cost of the method in multi-transit model planning. Furthermore, the optimization results show that the total costs (TC) were reduced by 14.48%. Among them, the user costs (UC) decreased by 30.38% and the operator costs (OC) increased by 4.18%. Sensitivity analyses are presented to verify the validity of the model. The analysis results show that multi size bus optimization can reduce the total cost, especially the user cost in a certain cost weight interval. Besides this, the cost weight which reflects the passenger volume and waiting time value, optional bus size and cross-section passenger volume all affect vehicle scheme and system cost.

Analysis of the Relationship between Currency Redenomination and Financial Transaction Costs in Nigeria

The study analyses the relationship between currency redenomination and financial sector transaction costs in Nigeria using a sample of 200 respondents from ten financial institutions. Applying the Chi-square test, the study reveals that high currency redenomination removes wasteful transactions removes user costs (difficulties arising from memorizing, calculating and carrying large sum of lowest denominations: coins and smaller notes). The results also show that currency redenomination influences inflationary pressure and currency liberalization in Nigeria. Based on the findings the study recommends the introduction of currency redenomination to facilitate the consumers' cash payment and reduce the cost incurred by producers and issuing authorities, and also make payment system more efficient and effective.

Shifting perspectives: A comparison of travel-time-based and carbon-based accessibility landscapes

Undoubtedly, climate change and its mitigation have emerged as main topics in public discourse. While accessibility planning is recognized for supporting sustainable urban and transport development in general, the specific challenge of reducing transport-related greenhouse gas emissions has rarely been directly addressed. Traditionally, accessibility is operationalized in line with the user perception of the transport system. Travel-time-based measures are considered to be closely linked with travel behavior theory, whereas CO2 emissions are not necessarily a major determinant of travel decisions. Given the changed prioritization of objectives, additional emphasis should be placed on the environmental costs of travel rather than solely the user costs. Accessibility analysis could account for this shift in perspectives by using CO2 emissions instead of travel time in the underlying cost function. While losing predictive power in terms of travel behavior compared to other implementations of accessibility, carbon-based accessibility analysis enables a normative understanding of travel behavior as it ought to be. An application in the Munich region visualizes the differences between travel-time-based and carbon-based accessibility by location, transport mode, and specification of the accessibility measure. The emerging accessibility landscapes illustrate the ability of carbon-based accessibility analysis to provide new insights into land use and transport systems from a different perspective. Based on this exercise, several use cases in the context of low-carbon mobility planning are discussed and pathways to further develop and test the method in cooperation with decision-makers are outlined.

The effects of expansion joint design on bridge life-cycle costs - initial investment versus total cost of ownership

<p>The need to maximise long-term value for money supports the consideration of life-cycle costs rather than just initial construction costs when investing in key infrastructure such as bridges. This is especially true in the case of a bridge’s expansion joints, which are much less robust than the structure as a whole yet subjected to continuous movements and dynamic loading. The life-cycle costs of a bridge’s expansion joints may be considered to include not only initial supply and installation costs, but also maintenance and repair costs throughout their service life, and replacement costs, and the user costs associated with maintenance and replacement work – especially those relating to traffic disruption. Increasingly, the effects of avoidable work on the environment should also be considered. This paper will address this topic, discussing issues that should be considered in choosing the optimal solution for any individual structure.</p>

Factors Contributing to the Rising National Cost of Glucose-Lowering Medicines for Diabetes During 2005–2007 and 2015–2017

OBJECTIVE <p> </p> <p>We examined changes in glucose-lowering medication spending and quantified the magnitude of factors that are contributing to these changes. </p> <p> </p> <p>RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS</p> <p> </p> <p>Using the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, we estimated the change in spending on glucose-lowering medications during 2005–2007 and 2015–2017 among adults aged 18 years or older with diabetes. We decomposed the increase of total spending by medication groups: for insulin by human and analog; and for non-insulin by metformin, older, newer, and combination medications. For each group, we quantified the contributions by the number of users and cost-per-user. Costs were in 2017 US dollars.</p> <p> </p> <p>RESULTS</p> <p> </p> <p>National spending on glucose-lowering medications increased by $40.6 billion (240%), of which insulin and non-insulin medications contributed $28.6 billion (169%) and $12.0 billion (71%), respectively.<a> </a><a></a><a>For insulin, the increase was mainly associated with higher expenditures from analogs</a> (156%). For non-insulin, the increase was a net effect of higher cost for newer medications (+88%) and decreased cost for older medications (-34%). Most of the increase in insulin spending came from the increase in cost-per-user. However, the increase in the number of users contributed more than cost-per-user in the rise of most non-insulin groups.</p> <p> </p> <p>CONCLUSIONS</p> <p> </p> <p><a>The increase in national spending on glucose-lowering medications during the past decade was mostly associated with the increased costs for insulin</a>, analogs in particular, and newer non-insulin medicines; and cost-per-user had a larger effect than the number of users. Understanding the factors contributing to the increase helps identify ways to curb the growth in costs. </p>

Factors Contributing to the Rising National Cost of Glucose-Lowering Medicines for Diabetes During 2005–2007 and 2015–2017

OBJECTIVE <p> </p> <p>We examined changes in glucose-lowering medication spending and quantified the magnitude of factors that are contributing to these changes. </p> <p> </p> <p>RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS</p> <p> </p> <p>Using the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, we estimated the change in spending on glucose-lowering medications during 2005–2007 and 2015–2017 among adults aged 18 years or older with diabetes. We decomposed the increase of total spending by medication groups: for insulin by human and analog; and for non-insulin by metformin, older, newer, and combination medications. For each group, we quantified the contributions by the number of users and cost-per-user. Costs were in 2017 US dollars.</p> <p> </p> <p>RESULTS</p> <p> </p> <p>National spending on glucose-lowering medications increased by $40.6 billion (240%), of which insulin and non-insulin medications contributed $28.6 billion (169%) and $12.0 billion (71%), respectively.<a> </a><a></a><a>For insulin, the increase was mainly associated with higher expenditures from analogs</a> (156%). For non-insulin, the increase was a net effect of higher cost for newer medications (+88%) and decreased cost for older medications (-34%). Most of the increase in insulin spending came from the increase in cost-per-user. However, the increase in the number of users contributed more than cost-per-user in the rise of most non-insulin groups.</p> <p> </p> <p>CONCLUSIONS</p> <p> </p> <p><a>The increase in national spending on glucose-lowering medications during the past decade was mostly associated with the increased costs for insulin</a>, analogs in particular, and newer non-insulin medicines; and cost-per-user had a larger effect than the number of users. Understanding the factors contributing to the increase helps identify ways to curb the growth in costs. </p>