Farm Rejuvenation-Induced Changes in Tree Spatial Pattern and Live Biomass Species of Cocoa Agroforests in Central Cameroon: Insights for Tree Conservation Incentives in Cocoa Landscapes

Cocoa agroforests sustain ecosystem services (ESs) to varying degrees. These services are otherwise mostly provided by other non-cocoa shade or companion trees. However, the density of shade trees is associated with services and/or disservices that drive farm-specific tree management successions. Considering the growing impacts of climate crisis on farm productivity and the need for adaptation strategies, the ESs are increasingly provisional and contingent on the prevailing vegetation, land tenure, and management successions, amongst others social and ecological factors. To assess the temporal changes in shade management, we surveyed an age gradient of “family farms” in cocoa agroforests created from forest (fCAFS) and savannah (sCAFS) land cover. We evaluated the temporal changes in farm structure, relative tree abundance, and live aboveground biomass of the major canopy strata. We used a spatial point process and linear mixed effect analysis to assess the contributions of associated perennial trees (AsT) on farm rejuvenation patterns. The density of cocoa trees was inconsistent with farm age; this was significantly high on farms in sCAFS (1544 trees ha−1) with spatially random configuration across farm age. On farms in fCAFS, we observed a transition of the cocoa tree configuration in the order regular, random, and clustering from young (with highest density of 1114 trees ha−1) to old farms. On a temporal scale, there is no clear distinction of farm structure and biomass between fCAFS and sCAFS. However, the cycle of tree species and structural composition of the canopy strata are dissimilar; the live biomass allocation for the considered use groups of tree species was different with farm age. The observed dynamics in canopy tree structure and live biomass provide insights into farmers’ temporal allocation of uses and prioritization of different tree species with farm age. We recommend the consideration of such landscape-specific, tree management dynamics in proposing on-farm tree conservation incentives. Our results are also conducive to reliable estimates of the ecosystem services from CAFS in the national implementation of conservation mechanisms such as REDD+.

Trading Tactics: Time to Rethink the Global Trade in Wildlife

The Covid-19 outbreak has brought about fresh and intensified scrutiny of the wildlife trade, which substantively involves commerce in exotic pets. In response, major policy decisions involving trade bans have ensued, with calls for similar such action to be applied across the trade chain. Yet, these measures have been criticised, largely based on concerns that they risk exacerbating poverty, undermining human rights, damaging conservation incentives, and otherwise harming sustainable development and conservation efforts. Instead, many critics propose improved regulation of the status quo, with the intention of nurturing a legal, sustainable, safe, humane, and equitable wildlife trade. Herein, we provide a countering view that outlines how the risks presented by the wildlife trade are becoming increasingly recognised as being both manifold and severe; and raise concerns that the goal of a well-regulated wildlife trade is becoming increasingly exposed as a mirage. We conclude that while pursuing the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals (with their focus on poverty alleviation, food security, public health, and conservation) is enduringly vital, a flourishing wildlife trade is not. Given that the exploitation of wildlife, including for the pet trade, has been identified as one of the dominant drivers of biodiversity loss, emergence of zoonotic infectious disease, animal suffering, and financial instability, perpetuating the concept of utilising a regulated wildlife trade as the default approach to protect people and planet is in urgent need of re-evaluation.

Coral reef conservation incentives and revenue sharing

Coral reefs are at particular risk of overexploitation and extinction due to negative externalities from productive sectors such as tourism and fisheries. Increased reliance on tourism revenue means difficult trade-offs. This study proposes a community-based approach to conservation based on a bioeconomic model. We extend earlier work on exogenous reward-based conservation programs by specifying rewards contingent on the level of conservation effort. In addressing the question—whether effort-dependent revenue-sharing incentivizes local residents to engage in conservation activities—the findings indicate that what matters is the relative size of reward, the degree of reliance on coral reefs as a source of revenue, and how the stock is perceived by economic agents, that is, whether they view coral reefs as a commodity or a nuisance.

ANALYSING COMMUNITY PERCEPTIONS ON INCENTIVE STRATEGIES IN SAFEGUARDING A MALAY HERITAGE VILLAGE: THE CASE OF KAMPUNG MORTEN, MELAKA

Over-commercialism and the threats posed by uncontrolled development have slowly been eroding the cultural heritage stock, especially in the case of the traditional settlements. This paper reveals the community perceptions and feedbacks on the incentives given in safeguarding the uniqueness of a Malay heritage village known as Kampung Morten in Melaka. This study set out to determine the overarching question, which was, whether the incentive programmes formulated for the community have been found to be suitable to the aspirations and ‘real’ needs of the local communities. Mixed method approaches were used in this study which included document reviews, observations, structured interviews and a questionnaire survey; and involved the residents living in the village. This study evaluates the findings concerning the present policy framework, for understanding and managing the cultural heritage incentives programme in safeguarding the heritage village to establish a sustainable community. This paper has been able to reveal several issues on the conservation incentives policy, most notably of which is the incompatibility of the local communities’ needs with the programme outcomes.