FLOW CHECK AND ADIABATIC EFFECTIVENESS MEASUREMENTS ON TRADITIONALLY VERSUS ADDITIVELY MANUFACTURED FILM-COOLING HOLES

In the recent years Additive Manufacturing (AM) methods are getting more and more attractive and feasible for the realization of components and subcomponents of gas turbines. They are receiving much attention since, on one hand, the manufacturing of complex 3D geometries is allowed and, on the other, manufacturing and delivery times can be cut down. At the current state of the art, to the authors' knowledge only few applications have yet been commercialized relatively to cooling holes, due to the intrinsic difficulties associated with such a critical feature. Lately, Baker Hughes is studying the possibility to manufacture film-cooling holes via the DMLM technology in order to exploit the flexibility of such innovative manufacturing method and hence eliminate additional processes and lead time. From the open literature it is known that additively manufactured holes can have a more irregular shape and higher roughness than traditional ones, which may lead not only to a reduction in coolant flow but more importantly to a decay of the film-cooling adiabatic effectiveness. For this reason, a test campaign has been conducted in collaboration with the University of Florence (Italy) with the objective of characterizing the performance (minimum passage diameter, flow check and adiabatic effectiveness) of AM vs traditional cylindrical holes on simple-geometry coupons built upon different construction angles. Results were then analyzed in order to fully compare the performance of AM vs traditional film-cooling holes at different operating regimes.

ADIABATIC EFFECTIVENESS AND THERMAL FIELD MEASUREMENTS OF A SHAPED HOLE IN THE SHOWERHEAD OF A MODEL TURBINE BLADE

Few published studies incorporating shaped hole designs in the leading-edge region, or showerhead, of turbine airfoils have been performed; but among them is the indication that shaped holes may offer an improvement in coolant performance compared to cylindrical holes. A shaped hole was designed with the goal of high performance in the showerhead. The performance and physical behavior of this shaped hole design was studied in comparison to a traditional cylindrical hole design in a series of experiments. The geometries were built into the leading edge of a scaled-up turbine blade model for testing in a low-speed simulated linear cascade. To accomplish an engine-representative test environment, a nominally 5% approach turbulence level was used for this study. Adiabatic effectiveness as a function of coolant injection rate was measured for the two designs using infrared thermography. In addition, off-the-wall thermal field measurements were performed for each hole geometry in the leading-edge region. It was found that the shaped hole offered ~20-100% higher performance in terms of adiabatic effectiveness depending on the coolant injection rate. The thermal field measurements suggested that this was due to the better attachment of the jets exiting the shaped holes, the momenta of which were effectively reduced by the diffusers.

A Numerical Study On Active Film Cooling Flow Control Through The Use Of Sister Holes

The research contained herein studied the effect of sister holes on film cooling. This novel technique surrounds a primary injection hole by two or four smaller sister holes to actively maintain flow adhesion along the surface of the blade. A numerical evaluation using the realizable κ-ε turbulence model led to the determination that the use of sister holes significantly improves adiabatic effectiveness by countering the primary vertical flow structure. Research was performed to determine the optimal hole configuration, arriving at the conclusion that placing sister holes slightly downstream of the primary injection hole improves the near-hole effectiveness, while placing sister holes slightly upstream of the primary hole improves downstream effectiveness. Similar results were found in evaluating both long and short hole geometries with a significantly less coherent flow field arising form the short hole study. However, on the whole, the sister hole approach to film cooling was found to offer viable improvements over standard cooling regimes.

A Numerical Study On Active Film Cooling Flow Control Through The Use Of Sister Holes

The research contained herein studied the effect of sister holes on film cooling. This novel technique surrounds a primary injection hole by two or four smaller sister holes to actively maintain flow adhesion along the surface of the blade. A numerical evaluation using the realizable κ-ε turbulence model led to the determination that the use of sister holes significantly improves adiabatic effectiveness by countering the primary vertical flow structure. Research was performed to determine the optimal hole configuration, arriving at the conclusion that placing sister holes slightly downstream of the primary injection hole improves the near-hole effectiveness, while placing sister holes slightly upstream of the primary hole improves downstream effectiveness. Similar results were found in evaluating both long and short hole geometries with a significantly less coherent flow field arising form the short hole study. However, on the whole, the sister hole approach to film cooling was found to offer viable improvements over standard cooling regimes.

Effect of a Ceramic Matrix Composite Surface on Film Cooling

Ceramic matrix composite (CMC) parts create the opportunity for increased turbine entry temperatures within gas turbines. To achieve the highest temperatures possible, film cooling will play an important role in allowing turbine entry temperatures to exceed acceptable surface temperatures for CMC components, just as it does for the current generation of gas turbine components. Film cooling over a CMC surface introduces new challenges including roughness features downstream of the cooling holes and changes to the hole exit due to uneven surface topography. To better understand these impacts, this study presents flowfield and adiabatic effectiveness CFD for a 7-7-7 shaped film cooling hole at two CMC weave orientations. The CMC surface selected is a 5 Harness Satin weave pattern that is examined at two different orientations. To understand the ability of steady RANS to predict flow and convective heat transfer over a CMC surface, the weave surface is initially simulated without film and compared to previous experimental results. The simulation of the weave orientation of 0°, with fewer features projecting into the flow, matches fairly well to the experiment, and demonstrates a minimal impact on film cooling leading to only slightly lower adiabatic effectiveness compared to a smooth surface. However, the simulation of the 90° orientation with a large number of protruding features does not match the experimentally observed surface heat transfer. The additional protruding surface produces degraded film cooling performance at low blowing ratios but is less sensitive to blowing ratio, leading to improved relative performance at higher blowing ratios, particularly in regions far downstream of the hole.

Effects on Film Cooling Performance in the Showerhead From Geometric Parameterization of Shaped Hole Designs

The high heat loads at the leading-edge regions of turbine vanes and blades necessitate the most robust thermal protection, typically accomplished via a dense array of film cooling holes, nicknamed the “showerhead.” Although research has shown that film cooling using shaped holes provides more reliable thermal protection than that using cylindrical holes, the effects on cooling performance from varying the geometric details of the shaped hole design are not well characterized. In this study, adiabatic effectiveness and off-the-wall thermal field measurements were conducted for two shaped hole geometries designed as successors to a baseline hole geometry presented in a previous study. One geometry with a 40% increase in area ratio exhibited only a marginal improvement in adiabatic effectiveness (∼10%). A second design with a 12° forward and lateral expansion angle with a breakout area 40% larger performed marginally worse than its matched area ratio counterpart (∼15% lower), suggesting a negative sensitivity to breakout area. Such changes in performance for different shaped hole designs were small compared to the boost in performance gained by switching from a cylindrical hole to a shaped hole, which suggests cooling performance is insensitive to specific shaped hole details provided the exterior coolant flow is well-attached.

Effect of Self-Sustained Pulsation of Coolant Flow on Adiabatic Effectiveness and Net Heat Flux Reduction on a Flat Plate

Advanced film-cooling systems are necessary to guarantee safe working conditions of high-pressure turbine stages. A fair prediction of the inherent unsteady interaction between the main-flow and the jet of cooling air allows for correctly describing the complex flow structures arising close to the cooled region. This proves to be crucial for the design of high-performance cooling systems. Results obtained by means of an experimental campaign performed at the University of Karlsruhe are shown along with unsteady numerical data obtained for the corresponding working conditions. The experimental rig consists of an instrumented plate where the hot flow reaches Mach = 0.6 close to the coolant jet exit section. The numerical campaign models the unsteady film cooling characteristics using a third-order accurate method. The ANSYS® FLUENT® software is used along with a mesh refinement procedure that allows for accurately modelling the flow field. Turbulence is modelled using the k-ω SST model. Time-averaged and time-resolved distributions of adiabatic effectiveness and Net Heat Flux Reduction are analysed to determine to what extent deterministic unsteadiness plays a role in cooling systems. It is found that coolant pulsates due to fluctuations generated by flow separation at the inlet section of the cooling channel. Visualizations of the fluctuating flow field demonstrate that coolant penetration depends on the phase of the pulsation, thus leading to periodically reduced shielding. Eventually, unsteadiness occurring at integral length scales does not provide enough mixing to match the experiments, thus hinting that the dominant phenomena occur at inertial length scales.