Main body

Recently, misinformation has increasingly impacted public discourse and public safety. From the COVID-19 pandemic to national elections, society is increasingly examining the negative impact of misinformation. Exposure to misinformation has been linked to conflicting perceptions of social, economic, and political issues, which leads to polarization, radicalization, and even acts of violence. While research has examined the development and spreading of misinformation, little has been done to examine the processes of being exposed to, and influenced by, misinformation. This paper uses Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory to examine the effect of individual differences in personality traits related to the behavioral inhibition system on the behavioral and cognitive response to exposure to misinformation online. Trait BIS was related to how much individuals positively engaged with misinformation, as well as intentions for activism and radicalism. These findings suggest that high uncertainty/anxiety may increase engagement with and influence by misinformation.

Bridging Classical and Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Research: A Longitudinal Analysis of a Large Population Study

The reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) proposes that neurobiological systems mediate protective and appetitive behaviours and the functioning of these systems is associated to personality traits. In this manner, the RST is a link between neuroscience, behaviour, and personality. The theory evolved to the present revised version describing three systems: fight-flight-freezing, behavioural approach/activation (BAS), and behavioural inhibition (BIS). However, the most widely available measure of the theory, the BIS/BAS scales, only investigates two systems. Using a large longitudinal community survey, we found that the BIS/BAS scales can be re-structured to investigate the three systems of the theory with a BIS scale, three BAS scales, and a separate fight-flight-freezing system (FFFS) scale. The re-structured scales were age, sex, and longitudinally invariant, and associations with personality and mental health measures followed theoretical expectations and previously published associations. The proposed framework can be used to investigate behavioural choices influencing physical and mental health and bridge historical with contemporary research.

Pengembangan Model Perilaku Mengebut di Indonesia serta Rekomendasi Pencegahannya

Menurut data dari Kepolisian Republik Indonesia, 61% kasus terjadinya kecelakaan adalah karena faktor manusia. Kementerian Perhubungan (Kemenhub) juga mencatat bahwa sedikitnya 2-3 orang meninggal dunia per harinya akibat kecelakaan lalu lintas dimana pada posisi pertama kecelakaan disebabkan oleh pengendara sepeda motor. Land Transport Safety Authority (LTSA) pada tahun 2001 juga menemukan bahwa mengebut (speeding) menjadi faktor utama dalam kematian pengendara kendaraan bermotor. Oleh karena itu, perlu dilakukannya penelitian yang dapat mengungkapkan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi perilaku mengebut sehingga mekanisme pencegahan perilaku tersebut dapat dibuat. Sebuah kuesioner dikembangkan sebagai instrumen penelitian berdasarkan Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), Drivers Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ), Classical Deterrence Theory (CDT) dan Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST). Terdapat 317 responden yang mengisi kuesioner tersebut. Metode analisis yang digunakan untuk mengolah data tersebut adalah dengan menggunakan Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM). Hasil dari 317 pengendara di Indonesia menunjukkan bahwa Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC) merupakan variabel yang paling mempengaruhi niat seseorang untuk melakukan perilaku mengebut. Sehingga, salah satu rekomendasi pencegahan berdasarkan hasil tersebut adalah dengan memberikan hambatan agar pengendara tidak merasa termotivasi untuk melakukan perilaku mengebut.

Dispositional Mindfulness in Context: Cultural and Individual Perspectives

<p><b>Mindfulness, which was derived from Buddhist philosophy and practice, is often defined as “paying attention in a particular way, on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally“. The practice of secular mindfulness exercises has received substantial interest in psychology over the last decade and mindfulness-based practices are now widely implemented in clinical interventions. Previous research has identified stable individual differences in mindfulness which are present even in non-practitioners. My research builds on this body of work and explores (i) the current state and directions in the literature on trait mindfulness research; (ii) the relationship between trait mindfulness and established individual differences such as personality and reinforcement sensitivity; and (iii) the cross-cultural applicability of current mindfulness measures.</b></p> <p> In the first study in this thesis, I used recent developments in bibliometric analysis to examine the development of the field of trait mindfulness, identifying important research areas in this line of work and patterns of cross-national collaboration. I found 1229 documents in the time span from 2005 to 2021 using a search in the Web of Science. Examining the complete corpus of literature that referenced trait mindfulness, I found that current research approaches focus more on clinically relevant outcomes than on potential predictors of mindfulness, which manifested in substantial clusters of themes around well-being and treatment. I also found substantively more articles published by authors working in Western countries than in the majority world. This indicates that research appears to be biased both towards clinical outcomes of mindfulness and skewed towards Western cultural contexts and concerns.</p> <p>In my next study, I examined the replicability of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) to explore whether the same five major dimensions of mindfulness emerge in a different sample 15 years later. The FFMQ contains five facets: Non-Judging (non-evaluation of thoughts and feelings), Non-Reacting (ability to not act on negative thoughts and emotions), Acting with Awareness (awareness of self in the moment), Describing (labelling and expressing experiences), and Observing (awareness of sensory experiences). Following the overall protocol of the original study and using a range of currently available mindfulness measures, I found that the facets of the FFMQ could largely be retrieved in this conceptual replication. In addition, new measures of “Western” mindfulness were empirically separable from measures based in Buddhist conceptualizations. This supports the use of multi-facetted mindfulness measures to capture self-reported mindfulness.</p> <p> In the second part of my thesis, I focused on potential individual-level predictors of the facets of mindfulness. In Study 3, I joined two previously separated lines of research by jointly examining the relationship between mindfulness, reinforcement sensitivity, and personality. In contrast to previous studies, I found that the facets of mindfulness might be differentially related to supposed biological (reinforcement sensitivity) and cognitive (personality) individual differences while accounting for their overlap. Specifically, Neuroticism, which in past studies was related to Non-Judging and Non-Reacting, was only related to Non-Reacting. In turn, Non-Judging was predicted by behavioral inhibition, but Non-Reacting was not.</p> <p>In Study 4, I moved from cross-sectional analyses to a 4-month longitudinal investigation, using recent advances in modelling to separate within and between-individual relationships. In contrast to the cross-sectional investigation, I found a more complex pattern of relationships, including potential feedback loops between individual differences and mindfulness. Specifically, I found that the expression of supposed biological differences in long-term orientation predicted individuals’ level of awareness, but in turn higher awareness also predicted greater long-term orientation. This provides a tentative mechanistic explanation of the link between Acting with Awareness and health-behaviors identified in previous studies.</p> <p> In the third part of the thesis, I focus on the applicability of mindfulness measures across cultures. As indicated above, mindfulness emerged in Eastern contexts but is currently studied in Western societies. Hence, I test how well the FFMQ as the gold standard of mindfulness trait measures performs across cultures. To provide a toolkit for cross-cultural researchers, I present a synthesis of standards for cross-cultural comparisons and developed a proto-type of an R-package that implements various methodological advances and analytical tools. In the final study, I applied these tools to examine the suitability of the FFMQ for cross-cultural comparisons across 16 countries. Overall, I found that the FFMQ is substantially biased towards higher income and more individualistic contexts and shows substantial variation across cultures. This finding implies that the FFMQ might not be suitable in its current form for cross-cultural comparisons, possible due to cultural differences in the understanding of Acting with Awareness, which in an exploratory study is separated into awareness of mind and body. This indicates that additional research is necessary to ensure the cross-cultural comparability of mindfulness and to advance research.</p> <p> In my general discussion, I explore both methodological and conceptual avenues for future research in trait mindfulness. Returning to questions of individual differences in mindfulness, I highlight how recent advances in network modelling might allow researchers to untangle the differences in between and within-individual relationships observed in this thesis. I present some evidence of the application of network models from research on personality, to highlight the usefulness of this technique for future research on mindfulness. Focusing on cultural differences in structure and functionality, I review various lines of research that indicate that mindfulness-like features may be found in various cultural contexts, but may be differently experienced and expressed, as indicated by my psychometric examination of the FFMQ. I outline how researchers taking a functionalist approach might link current mindfulness approaches with different philosophical and cultural approaches to enrich the nomological network and present initial evidence on these relationships.</p>

Dispositional Mindfulness in Context: Cultural and Individual Perspectives

<p><b>Mindfulness, which was derived from Buddhist philosophy and practice, is often defined as “paying attention in a particular way, on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally“. The practice of secular mindfulness exercises has received substantial interest in psychology over the last decade and mindfulness-based practices are now widely implemented in clinical interventions. Previous research has identified stable individual differences in mindfulness which are present even in non-practitioners. My research builds on this body of work and explores (i) the current state and directions in the literature on trait mindfulness research; (ii) the relationship between trait mindfulness and established individual differences such as personality and reinforcement sensitivity; and (iii) the cross-cultural applicability of current mindfulness measures.</b></p> <p> In the first study in this thesis, I used recent developments in bibliometric analysis to examine the development of the field of trait mindfulness, identifying important research areas in this line of work and patterns of cross-national collaboration. I found 1229 documents in the time span from 2005 to 2021 using a search in the Web of Science. Examining the complete corpus of literature that referenced trait mindfulness, I found that current research approaches focus more on clinically relevant outcomes than on potential predictors of mindfulness, which manifested in substantial clusters of themes around well-being and treatment. I also found substantively more articles published by authors working in Western countries than in the majority world. This indicates that research appears to be biased both towards clinical outcomes of mindfulness and skewed towards Western cultural contexts and concerns.</p> <p>In my next study, I examined the replicability of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) to explore whether the same five major dimensions of mindfulness emerge in a different sample 15 years later. The FFMQ contains five facets: Non-Judging (non-evaluation of thoughts and feelings), Non-Reacting (ability to not act on negative thoughts and emotions), Acting with Awareness (awareness of self in the moment), Describing (labelling and expressing experiences), and Observing (awareness of sensory experiences). Following the overall protocol of the original study and using a range of currently available mindfulness measures, I found that the facets of the FFMQ could largely be retrieved in this conceptual replication. In addition, new measures of “Western” mindfulness were empirically separable from measures based in Buddhist conceptualizations. This supports the use of multi-facetted mindfulness measures to capture self-reported mindfulness.</p> <p> In the second part of my thesis, I focused on potential individual-level predictors of the facets of mindfulness. In Study 3, I joined two previously separated lines of research by jointly examining the relationship between mindfulness, reinforcement sensitivity, and personality. In contrast to previous studies, I found that the facets of mindfulness might be differentially related to supposed biological (reinforcement sensitivity) and cognitive (personality) individual differences while accounting for their overlap. Specifically, Neuroticism, which in past studies was related to Non-Judging and Non-Reacting, was only related to Non-Reacting. In turn, Non-Judging was predicted by behavioral inhibition, but Non-Reacting was not.</p> <p>In Study 4, I moved from cross-sectional analyses to a 4-month longitudinal investigation, using recent advances in modelling to separate within and between-individual relationships. In contrast to the cross-sectional investigation, I found a more complex pattern of relationships, including potential feedback loops between individual differences and mindfulness. Specifically, I found that the expression of supposed biological differences in long-term orientation predicted individuals’ level of awareness, but in turn higher awareness also predicted greater long-term orientation. This provides a tentative mechanistic explanation of the link between Acting with Awareness and health-behaviors identified in previous studies.</p> <p> In the third part of the thesis, I focus on the applicability of mindfulness measures across cultures. As indicated above, mindfulness emerged in Eastern contexts but is currently studied in Western societies. Hence, I test how well the FFMQ as the gold standard of mindfulness trait measures performs across cultures. To provide a toolkit for cross-cultural researchers, I present a synthesis of standards for cross-cultural comparisons and developed a proto-type of an R-package that implements various methodological advances and analytical tools. In the final study, I applied these tools to examine the suitability of the FFMQ for cross-cultural comparisons across 16 countries. Overall, I found that the FFMQ is substantially biased towards higher income and more individualistic contexts and shows substantial variation across cultures. This finding implies that the FFMQ might not be suitable in its current form for cross-cultural comparisons, possible due to cultural differences in the understanding of Acting with Awareness, which in an exploratory study is separated into awareness of mind and body. This indicates that additional research is necessary to ensure the cross-cultural comparability of mindfulness and to advance research.</p> <p> In my general discussion, I explore both methodological and conceptual avenues for future research in trait mindfulness. Returning to questions of individual differences in mindfulness, I highlight how recent advances in network modelling might allow researchers to untangle the differences in between and within-individual relationships observed in this thesis. I present some evidence of the application of network models from research on personality, to highlight the usefulness of this technique for future research on mindfulness. Focusing on cultural differences in structure and functionality, I review various lines of research that indicate that mindfulness-like features may be found in various cultural contexts, but may be differently experienced and expressed, as indicated by my psychometric examination of the FFMQ. I outline how researchers taking a functionalist approach might link current mindfulness approaches with different philosophical and cultural approaches to enrich the nomological network and present initial evidence on these relationships.</p>

Are reinforcement sensitivity personality constructs and attentional control important predictors of restrictive disordered eating?

The revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (rRST) perspective on personality suggests that a neuropsychological behavioural inhibition system (BIS), behavioural approach system (BAS), and a fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS) produce the key personality traits involved in approach and avoidance behaviours. This perspective on personality can be used as a framework for understanding psychopathology. Self-report research on rRST suggests that restrictive disordered eating relates to elevated BIS sensitivity, elevated FFFS sensitivity, and possibly dysfunctional BAS sensitivity. Disordered eating can also relate to reduced trait mindfulness, which is a broadly defined construct. Trait mindfulness is positively correlated with attentional control (AC) which is a more specific component of our cognitive architecture that incorporates attentional focusing and attentional shifting processes. It is unknown how BIS and AC interact to predict restrictive disordered eating. We tested how self-reported BIS, BAS, and FFFS sensitivity, AC, and trait mindfulness relate to restrictive disordered eating in 464 healthy participants, and 177 participants with a history of psychiatric disorder. We provide new evidence that elevated restrictive disordered eating relates to reduced self-reported AC abilities (in addition to elevated BIS, and elevated FFFS sensitivity). We illustrate that the combination of high BIS and low AC predicts high levels of restrictive disordered eating (but not in all participants), whereas low BIS and high AC predicts lower levels of restrictive disordered eating (but not in all participants). We discuss how understanding the relationship between personality and attentional control can inform the design of future intervention studies.

Emotional and Behavioral Responses to COVID-19

This review appraises evidence for the role of personality in COVID-19 related emotions and behaviors. Three key models of personality are considered: the Five-factor Model, HEXACO model, and Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST). In line with personality research, more generally, most studies focus on the Five-Factor model. Key findings are that neuroticism is most associated with poor mental health, and extraversion is associated with a reluctance to socially isolate. Conscientiousness predicts compliance with safety guidelines but also with fewer prosocial behaviors, particularly stockpiling. Research within the HEXACO framework largely confirms these findings, especially for emotionality and mental health. The additional HEXACO Honesty-Humility factor is found to be associated with prosocial views and abstention from panic buying. Studies based on the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of personality indicate emotional conflict as people wish to stay safe while maintaining a sense of normality. Behavioral compliance is driven by activation in the Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS; fear-related) and the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS; anxiety-related). The Behavioral Approach System (BAS) is implicated in approach-driven behaviors such as avoiding infection. These findings have implications for health communications and post-pandemic support.