Conjunctive and Elemental Representations of a Context in Humans

The dual-process theory assumes that contexts are encoded in an elemental and in a conjunctive representation. However, this theory was developed from animal studies, and we still have to explore if and how elemental and conjunctive representations contribute to, for example, contextual anxiety in humans. Therefore, 28 participants underwent differential context conditioning in a newly developed flip-book paradigm. Virtual rooms were presented similar to a flip-book, that is, as a stream of 49 consecutive screenshots creating the impression of walking through the rooms. This allowed registration of event-related brain potentials triggered by specific screenshots. During two acquisition phases, two rooms were shown in this way for six times each. In one room, the anxiety context (CTX+), mildly painful electric stimuli (unconditioned stimuli [USs]) were administered unpredictably after 12 distinct screenshots, which became threat elements, whereas 12 selected comparable screenshots became nonthreat elements (elemental representation); all screenshots represented the anxiety context (conjunctive representation). In the second room, the safety context (CTX−), no USs were applied; thus, all screenshots created the safety context whereby 12 preselected screenshots represented safety elements. Increased US expectancy ratings for threat versus nonthreat or safety elements reflected elemental representation. Conjunctive representation was evident in differential ratings (arousal and contingency) and increased P100 and early posterior negativity amplitudes for threat and nonthreat CTX+ versus safety CTX− screenshots. These differences disappeared during two test phases without US delivery indicating successful extinction. In summary, we revealed the first piece of evidence for the simultaneous contributions of elemental and conjunctive representation during context conditioning in humans.

Meaning Variations of Qāla (قال) in Indonesian Language

One of main component for every language is verb. In Arabic, qāla (قال) is one of verbs which substantively is used in many oral and written language due to its wide meaning. This research focuses on meaning variation of qāla (قال) when it was translated into Indonesian. In this study, differential meaning can be caused by differential speaker and also differential context. Thereby, the research aims to classify and explain every single meaning of qāla (قال) verb. This descriptive qualitative research uses observation method with tapping technique. Meanwhile, the data was analyzed by translational method, referential method, and pragmatics method. The result of the research shows that; (1) There are three differential meanings of qāla (قال) according to speaker perspective, as well as ‘berfirman’, ‘bersabda’, and ‘berkata’. (2) There are some differential meanings of qāla (قال) according to linguistics perspective, such as ‘berkata, mengatakan, mengabarkan, mengumumkan, berbicara, mengucapkan, mengaku, pendapat, bertanya, menjawab, perintah, and berdoa.

Regulating the Regulators: The Post-Translational Code of Class I HDAC1 and HDAC2

Class I histone deacetylases (HDACs) are cellular enzymes expressed in many tissues and play crucial roles in differentiation, proliferation, and cancer. HDAC1 and HDAC2 in particular are highly homologous proteins that show redundant or specific roles in different cell types or in response to different stimuli and signaling pathways. The molecular details of this dual regulation are largely unknown. HDAC1 and HDAC2 are not only protein modifiers, but are in turn regulated by post-translational modifications (PTMs): phosphorylation, acetylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation, nitrosylation, and carbonylation. Some of these PTMs occur and crosstalk specifically on HDAC1 or HDAC2, creating a rational “code” for a differential, context-related regulation. The global comprehension of this PTM code is central for dissecting the role of single HDAC1 and HDAC2 in physiology and pathology.