Princesses, Concubines and Qahramanat under the ‘Abbasids: Gender and Politics, 749–1055

In this chapter, one examines the rise of concubines to power, and becomes de facto ruler of the empire as royal mothers. One analyse the authority of Queenship described by N. Abbott, and the term queen mother applied by H. Kennedy, which is more favourable. One see the power of concubine Khayzuran who killed her son, the caliph and replace him with another, al-Rashid. She became the de facto ruler for three years. Also the phenomenal concubine, Shaghab in 10th century who ruled in the name of her boy caliph. That is with the network of allies, like Qahramanas. For example, Um Musa who ousted the vizier, and Thumal who took the unprecedented judicial post of Nazar al-Mazalim. In addition, queen mother allied with the eunuch commander of the army to protect her son’s interests. One do criticize the gendered opinion of F. El-Mernissi who described the age as (revolution of the harem) which is far from historical analyses and facts. The chapter examines in detail, the changing opinion of rulers about the participation of women in politics, and how public in general, and chroniclers in particular perceived such role.

The Seljuqs from Syria to Iran: The Age of Khatuns and Atabegs

In this chapter one examines the major change took place under the Turkmen Seljuqs coming from Mongolia to the Middle East. They introduced the unique post of atabeg or (father-prince) to keep their military Turkmen identity. However, Turkish princess were essential to such post to succeed as the sultan divorce one of his wives and marry her to a loyal commander to bring up one of his sons and groom him for future kingship. In fact, what it meant to be an element of preserving the Turkmen identity, turned out as a major one in the disintegration of the dynasty. Almost every atabeg who marry a khatun-princess collaborate to establish his own political dynasties. Such cases took place in Syria, Iran, Azerbaijan where royal mothers contributed to the success of such atabegate. The post had a political impact on other Muslim dynasties in the centuries to come.

The Kingdom of Eunuchs under the ‘Abbasids

This chapter analyse the status of eunuchs in Islam, compared to other civilizations. One monitor the different types of eunuchs and their evolution from serving in the harem section under early Abbasids to become intrusted with intelligence, insignia among other vital posts. The significant period of caliph al-Amin d. 813, where one see his love affairs with eunuchs and public perception to such behaviour. One do examine how third gendered eunuchs became army commanders, dominating the political affairs of the empire in early 10th cntury. That is in full collaboration with royal mothers, concubines, among other courtiers. How legendary Mu’nis al-Khadim reinstated a caliph, and toppled another for his own interests, although he has no biological future. Such domination by eunuchs, made them occupy almost all top positions in the state. The result, was the declaration of the first sole eunuch as a governor of a Muslim state in 966; Kafur of Egypt. That took place with some resentment from some intellectuals, but chroniclers did not report much dismay to the phenomena.

The Fatimid Eunuchs and their Sphere1

The Fatimids had followed the Abbasid tradition of using eunuchs in their caliphate, but they exceeded them in every way. The 10th -11th century could be named, the age of eunuchs. They became deputy to the caliph. Tutor to heir apparent, army commander, and de facto ruler of the realm. One do examine such impact on politics and Isma‘ili doctrine alike. Especially that we have the exceptional memoirs of chief eunuch Jawdhar during the North African stage. Although eunuchs were hired by their masters due to their non-existing political ambition, and absolute loyalty; one see them express their hunger for power, and dominate the state from beginning to end, which influenced Saladin to follow the same tradition when he succeeded the Fatimids in Egypt.

Fatimid Royal Women and Royal Concubines in Politics: The Rise of the First Queens of Islam

This chapter discusses the impact of Fatimid Shi‘i women on political and religious affairs, in collaboration with the other two genders; men and eunuchs. In Early 11th century, Sitt al-Mulk seized the rule in the Fatimid empire by assassinating her brother caliph and instated his young son. By 1036, Concubine Rasad became queen regent for her five years old boy, and dominated political affairs for decades, until she named herself as queen in state documents. One examine how the first sole queen came to power in Yemen in 1098 and remained for four decades. She not only was a ruler, but also became second religious authority after the caliph himself. Why and how she managed to do that? Why her model has not repeated under the Fatimid dynasty? Why 11th century Yemen and Arabia was much more progressive than 21th century? Ironically, Queen Arwa never attempted to use any of her gender in the state affairs, and continued to count on the other gender. The Egyptian chancery kept for us few official correspondents between the Queens of Fatimid Egypt and queen of Yemen in an extremely rare case.

The Umayyad Empire and the Establishment of a Royal Court, 661–750

This chapter discusses the huge and rapid military expansion of the Arab Umayyads and its impact on genders. It resulted in the creation of massive numbers of women taken as slaves- sabaya- which was permitted according to the classical reading of the Qur’an. Men on the other hand, refuse to apply the same right of women according to the Qur’an. The only woman to come forward to fight Umayyad invasion, was Queen Dihya of the Berbers in North Africa. The Umayyad failed to learn from such model, and Muslims who came afterwards did not attempt to follow such example of women rulers. The Umayyads tried to follow the Prophet’s model of political marriage to boost their rule, using women as a trophy. Caliph al-Walid II created his realm of desires gathering thousands of concubines around him, which some had limited political influence. On the other hands, one see the usage of eunuchs as guards to the harem section, following the Prophet’s model.

Introduction

The introduction presents an overview of the status of women before and after Islam. It examines the patriarchal reading of the Qur’an and tradition of the Prophet, which influenced all Muslim dynasties afterward. It discusses how Khadija and ‘Aisha, wives of the prophet, played a vital political roles, which diminished after few decades from the beginning of Islam. In addition, how Fatima, daughter of the Prophet bestowed her political protection over her husband in their attempt to seek the caliphate. The introduction present an Arab Christian queen, which commanded armies herself; A rare model, disappeared by patriarchal reading of the Qur’an in the first century of Islam. That followed by the creation of the harem institution. Thus, caging women in an isolated space. The introduction try to put the question forward: Did Islam improve the status of women? And how.

The Ayyubids: Their Two Queens and their Powerful Castrated Atabegs

This chapter analyse the coming to power of the first Sunni Queen in Islam. Dayfa Khatun, niece of Saladin in 1236. How she ruled Northern Syria, forming and leading a political-military pact. She used several eunuchs as her advisors and close courtiers. She was very successful, and paved the way to another queen in Ayyubid Egypt, Shajar al-Durr who confronted the Ninth Crusade in 1250, after the death of her husband. Why she was selected as queen by the commanders in critical period, and why the declining caliph in Baghdad opposed the rule of a female. Despite her short reign, she had remarkable architectural achievements. In addition, she dominated the reign of her husband, whom she elevated to power. One examine the evolution of the post of atabeg, and how they became eunuchs in most cases, and rule as de facto rulers in the realm. That was against the original aim of introducing such post to the administration.