Scenes with Stationary Action

Chapter 11 describes and storyboards various ways to enhance the cinematic storytelling of a film when a character is not moving about during a scene. Stories often contain scenes in which there is a single character who is stationary for a period of time while on the phone, working at a desk, reading, eating, sleeping, and so on. The techniques discussed include how to go from objective to subjective coverage and vice versa, ways to create point-of-view shots (POVs) and characters’ reaction shots, as well as how to use action to bridge a cut to a different shot size.

Shooting Driving Scenes

Chapter 18 explains and illustrates many options for blocking and shooting driving scenes to enhance the storytelling and maintain continuity. Driving sequences usually require both exterior shots of the vehicle in motion and interior shots of the occupants as they drive, have dialogue, and look out the windows. A range of effective cinematic camera angles for exterior shots are described. The various types of exterior shots serve to say something about the vehicle itself, the environment through which a car or other vehicle is being driven, the style of driving, or the length of the trip. Some of these shots begin with transitions, while others offer cutting points to interior car scenes. Standard camera angles to cover conversation in a car are described. The right combination of shots must be chosen to ensure that the shots match and that eyelines are logical, or the shots will not meet the needs of continuity editing and clear storytelling. Many examples are described and illustrated using storyboards, with both their visual storytelling and continuity editing aspects explained.

Using Storyboards

Chapter 2 describes storyboards and their role in filmmaking. Storyboards portray a film’s essential visual storytelling as it will ultimately appear on the screen prior to anything being shot. This is “shooting the film on paper.” Storyboards are used during preproduction for creating a visual storytelling plan, developing stunt sequences and visual effects, budgeting, and scheduling. During the production phase storyboards help with communication among the crew. For reasons of efficiency the shooting order of scenes is very different from the story order and can seem random. Storyboards help keep a director focused on a story’s sequence of events throughout production. Storyboard design and notation are described, including aspect ratios, indicating entrances and exits, animating action over several frames, the use of arrows, indicating camera movement, showing dialogue, adding descriptive text, and the numbering of scenes and shots. Several sample storyboards are shown.

Storytelling Cuts and Film Grammar

Chapter 7 explores how film grammar is used to design shots that can be cut together in ways that conform to continuity editing. Using film grammar keeps discontinuities that create abrupt jumps in time and space from arising during cuts. Stories flow naturally and viewers are not conscious of the editing. Film is a language, and film grammar helps achieve the goal of clear communication. Film grammar would not be needed if cuts were never made, but cuts are almost always needed for both practical and storytelling reasons. This chapter examines cutting for such reasons as dramatic emphasis, to show reactions, to create meaningful juxtapositions, to continue the story at a different time or in a new location, to show parallel action, and to switch between objective and subjective coverage of a character.

3D Spatial Continuity and 2D Screen Geography

Chapter 8 explains and illustrates the importance of screen geography for keeping time and space clear, and shows how to achieve it by designing shots that can be juxtaposed without breaking continuity. When a new scene begins, viewers expect to understand the space of the new setting just as they would understand it if they’d stepped into it. If the sequences of images give contradictory information about where things are situated in space, and how the action is unfolding, viewers become momentarily confused and distracted from the story. The important two-dimensional elements of screen geography and how they relate to three-dimensional space are examined. Planning the positioning of characters on the screen, creating eyelines, and achieving continuity of screen motion are explained. Camera positioning relative to the axis of action is explored as the key to achieving continuity when shots are sequenced during editing.

Beginning Scenes and Using Transitions

Chapter 10 examines the ways a new scene can begin. A new scene starts when a story’s action continues in a new setting. Time may be continuous, or it may be reset to a new point in the future or the past. Even when time is continuous with the previous scene, it may seem odd to viewers that they have arrived in a new setting instantaneously. This chapter describes and illustrates several effective ways of beginning a new scene smoothly using in-camera transitions, including wipes, pans, tilts, entrances, and reveals of various kinds. Hard cuts, cutting on action, jump cuts, and several types of fades and dissolves that can be added during editing are also discussed and storyboarded.

Introduction

The introduction describes how the qualities that give film its remarkable storytelling power can work against a story if not used skillfully. Mastering the craft of visual storytelling requires learning the meaning and emotional effects of the many types of shots, cuts, and transitions, as well as the effects of various types of blocking. This knowledge enables directors to heighten the drama of their stories by manipulating their audience’s thoughts and feelings as their story is told in a highly designed way. Film storytelling is not effective if the action is recorded using angles and cuts that do not suit the story. A storytelling plan must always consider mood, emphasis, time, and space. A simple scene of a prisoner in a jail cell is considered as an example of the range of moods that can be achieved through the choice of a single cinematic camera angle.

Continuity Editing Basics

Chapter 6 uses text and storyboards to explore the basics of continuity editing, whose goal is to tell a story on film that flows continuously, clearly, and logically in time and space. Continuity editing respects viewers’ natural assumption that time and space are contiguous from shot to shot. Continuity editing helps filmmakers satisfy their viewers’ expectation that people and objects should not seem to jump instantaneously and unrealistically within a setting or to a new place and time. Continuity editing is the standard for film storytelling. Even directors who have a style in which they frequently use jump cuts and cross the axis nevertheless practice continuity editing much of the time. This chapter is an overview of continuity editing’s main principles, and these ideas and the methods used to implement them are interwoven with the storytelling theme throughout this book.

Blocking for Cinematic Storytelling

An essential part of every director’s work is blocking actors’ action in relation to the camera in order to design dramatic shots and sequences. Good blocking leads to effective visual storytelling. The blocking does not have to be perfectly natural as long as it appears natural to viewers, illustrates the dramatic beats, and handles time and space well. This chapter describes several useful approaches to blocking a simple scene. Different emphasis, moods, and pacing result from the choices that are made when choreographing the movement of the actors on a set, incorporating transitions into shots, and designing camera angles and moves. This set of examples illustrates the wide range of options that are available, as well as the type of brainstorming of shots, cuts, and transitions that a director should do before settling on one storytelling plan.

Stories about Following or Chasing

This chapter describes and illustrates using storyboards several techniques a director can use when blocking and shooting a pursuit. Scenes that involve following and chasing are common in film stories: police officers, detectives, reporters, jealous spouses, and hitmen could have reasons to pursue someone. As shown in this chapter, the key visual storytelling consideration is whether the story should be told from the point of view of the follower or the one being followed, as this greatly influences the cinematography. While there are many ways to design a pursuit, certain types of shots and cuts are often used because they are so effective at covering this type of action. The cinematic storytelling and continuity editing ideas that are employed in the examples that are illustrated and explained have wide applicability.