The Fragmentation of Jazz Styles

In the post–World War II years, jazz started to split off into many different directions, spurring a fragmentation that expanded the creative range of the idiom but caused long-lasting divisions among artists and fans (the so-called jazz wars). The first fault lines emerged between traditional and modern jazz exponents, but during the 1950s and early 1960s, many different styles emerged—including cool jazz, hard bop, soul jazz, West Coast jazz, modal jazz, Third Stream jazz, and various experimental approaches. This chapter traces these stylistic developments, and their leading exponents. It looks at the life and work of Miles Davis, John Coltrane, Thelonious Monk, Stan Getz, Charles Mingus, and Bill Evans, among other major jazz stars of the era, and assesses key albums such as Kind of Blue, Mingus Ah Um, and Giant Steps.

Jazz Resurgent

At the dawn of the twenty-first century, many pundits announced the “death of jazz,” yet recent years have shown the exact opposite trend. Jazz has returned to popular culture, whether one looks to rising stars such as Kamasi Washington and Shabaka Hutchings, or to popular artists (Lady Gaga, Kendrick Lamar) who draw heavily on jazz influences. At the same time, jazz started showing up in hit movies such as La La Land, Green Book, and Whiplash, where it was mythologized as a touchstone of musical excellence and artistry. All these trends served to reinvigorate a jazz tradition that many had written off as moribund, creating a powerful convergence of historic styles and new commercial styles. This chapter also explores the jazz vocal scene of recent decades, and its contribution to this broadening of the genre’s appeal. Other artists discussed include Robert Glasper, Esperanza Spalding, and Bobby McFerrin. The chapter concludes with an assessment of jazz’s relationship with the emerging technologies of the digital age.

Traditionalists and Postmodernists

In the 1980s, more traditional approaches to jazz reasserted themselves, most notably in the work of trumpeter Wynton Marsalis. For the first time in the music’s history, the most celebrated jazz artist of the younger generation seemed just as determined to celebrate the genre’s past as forge a new path into the future—and the resulting tension stirred up the still simmering jazz wars. But Marsalis’s ascendancy was only part of a much larger reassertion of the importance of the history and tradition in jazz music, which also included the rise of record labels such as Pablo and Concord, focused on mainstream swing and bop styles. At the same time a more experimental postmodern movement emerged in jazz, also drawing on past styles, but in a more deconstructive and playful mix-and-match manner. This chapter explores these two ways of integrating the jazz tradition into new music, and covers key artists such as the Art Ensemble of Chicago, Carla Bley, Anthony Braxton, and John Zorn.

Modern Jazz

The rise of modern jazz—or “bebop” as it was called—dramatically changed the landscape of the music in the 1940s, transforming the genre into a truly progressive and experimental idiom. But this came at a cost, marking a shift from jazz’s predominance as a popular music, and turning it into an art music addressing a much smaller audience. This chapter looks at the innovations of the leading bebop musicians, especially Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, and Thelonious Monk. Other artists addressed include Bud Powell, Lennie Tristano, Sarah Vaughan, and Dave Brubeck. The chapter concludes with an assessment of big band jazz during the post–World War II era, including the work of Woody Herman and Stan Kenton.

The Swing Era

This chapter looks at the dramatic changes in American culture during the 1930s, when danceable swing jazz played by big bands became the most popular music in the United States. The emergence of a more propulsive dance beat in Kansas City jazz, led by the Count Basie band, set the stage for this shift in the public’s tastes. But the rise to fame of Benny Goodman in the mid-1930s was the transformative event that established jazz as the dominant sound of ballrooms and radio broadcasts throughout the country. This chapter looks at Goodman and his clarinet rival Artie Shaw, and the other leading big bands of the era, as well as the seminal work of Billie Holiday, Lester Young, Django Reinhardt, Coleman Hawkins, Mary Lou Williams, and others. The chapter concludes with an account of Duke Ellington’s mid- and late-career music.

The Jazz Age

This chapter traces the rise of Louis Armstrong to stardom during the 1920s, and the emergence of jazz as the defining music of the decade—a period now often called the “Jazz Age.” Armstrong’s historic recordings, the “Hot Fives” and “Hot Sevens,” are assessed, as well as his work with influential pianist Earl Hines. These developments are placed in the context of the growing importance of Chicago in the jazz world of this era, and the stylistic changes brought about by this geographical shift. The chapter also looks at the leading exponents of Chicago jazz, especially cornetist Bix Beiderbecke and saxophonist Frankie Trumbauer, as well as the work of Paul Whiteman, Pee Wee Russell, Sidney Bechet, and Jack Teagarden.

New Orleans Jazz

This chapter explores the emergence of jazz in New Orleans around the year 1900, and its first generation of performers. It examines the social and economic conditions in New Orleans, and the city’s rich musical traditions. The life and music of cornetist Buddy Bolden, often considered the first jazz musician, are examined in some depth, as are the contributions of other early jazz stars, including Freddie Keppard, Jelly Roll Morton, and King Oliver. The chapter concludes with an account of the early career of Louis Armstrong, which is continued in the next chapter.

Harlem

This chapter explores the emergence of Harlem as a center of jazz activity in the 1930s. It looks at the distinctive stride piano style that was popular in Harlem, and the work of pianists Fats Waller, James P. Johnson, Art Tatum, and others. The divide between the so-called Harlem Renaissance and the popular jazz culture of the day is discussed, as well as important local practices such as the “rent party.” The rise of Duke Ellington and his role as bandleader at Harlem’s Cotton Club is examined in this context.

The Prehistory of Jazz

This chapter explores the cultural and musical context for the birth of jazz. It examines the styles of music that influenced the early evolution of the music, including ragtime, blues, spirituals, and work songs. It also includes thumbnail sketches of the leading performers in these idioms, including Scott Joplin, Bessie Smith, Robert Johnson, and others. The chapter also describes the social context for early jazz, with special focus on African American culture in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Freedom and Fusion

The avant-garde (or “free jazz”) musicians who came to the forefront of jazz during the late 1950s and early 1960s mounted a revolutionary movement that challenged all the conventions of the idiom, aligning their innovations with the progressive social and political changes of the era. This chapter looks at the leading exponents of the music, including Ornette Coleman, Cecil Taylor, and Albert Ayler. But just when jazz seemed ready to sever completely its relationship with a mainstream audience, a new movement known as fusion (or jazz-rock fusion) attempted to broaden the music’s appeal by drawing on the new sounds of electrified commercial styles. Miles Davis, previously seen as an advocate of bebop, cool jazz, and other jazz movements, emerged as the leader of this new approach, signaled by the release of his hit album Bitches Brew. In the 1970s, a different kind of fusion style emerged, associated with the ECM record label in Germany, which combined jazz with ingredients drawn from classical music, world music, and other sources. This chapter traces the history of these contrasting styles and their major exponents, including Keith Jarrett, Pat Metheny, Chick Corea, Herbie Hancock, and the band Weather Report