History and Progress

Chapter 10 discusses how ideas about historical change influence conceptions of Europe. Late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century geography books typically regard history as a progression through various ‘stages’, an account which often conflates European and world history. But they also often regard the continent as an extant ideal society. This exposes uncertainty about whether to define Europe in terms of unchanging characteristics or mutable historical processes. Some geography books combine these perspectives and interpret historical change in terms of established patterns, a method which allows them to account for Europe’s malleability and its stable qualities.

The State

Chapter 6 discusses late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century geography books’ sustained focus on the political states of Europe. The books present states both as organic communities with multi-faceted jurisdictions, and as increasingly centralized governmental authorities. They usually specify that monarchy is the definitive form of European government, and that European states share a propensity for ‘liberty’, broadly defined as respect for law and property, and the maintenance of the balance of power in Europe. Some geographical texts talk about ‘nations’, but ideas about European polities remain reliant on established notions of governmental structures.

Geographical Knowledge

Chapter 2 explores how late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century British geographical works structure and present geographical knowledge. The books may seem disorganized and haphazard to modern eyes, but their contents and procedures are framed by classical and early modern precedents. The influence of Bernhard Varenius is key, especially his specification of ‘celestial’, ‘terrestrial’, and ‘human’ geography. These different emphases provide variant ways to understand space, premised respectively on universal mathematical laws, observation of a tangible physical world, and the vicissitudes of human activity and perception. The chapter shows how the resulting questions about the nature and limits of knowledge affect geographical works’ comprehension of Europe.

Geographical Texts

Chapter 1 explains the characteristics and significance of the book’s principal source material: late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century British geography books. These works have been largely neglected by historians, but their popularity and summative nature means that they can reveal the formative, commonplace ideas circulating in British literate culture. However, due to their opaque authorships, plagiaristic contents, and complex publication histories, geographical texts pose specific methodological challenges. The chapter therefore argues that we need to adopt different conceptual and procedural priorities in order to discern popular mentalities from these works.

Borders

Chapter 7 explores how late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century geography books conceptualize borders and how this affects their ideas about Europe. Geographical texts proffer many versions of Europe’s border with Asia, although certain variants are more widely adopted. Some books and their maps show borders as naturally occurring, whereas others present them as arbitrary lines determined by human activities and decisions. These contrasting approaches reflect dilemmas about geographical knowledge and have different implications for European politics. The seas surrounding Europe are also contentious: they are variously seen as annexed territories, marginal zones, and the figurative centre of the continent.

Conclusion

The Conclusion summarizes the overall findings of the book. Europe is neither a chaotic profusion of variant ideas, nor a fixed set of essential characteristics. Late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century British ideas of Europe are best understood as a series of unresolved questions which revolve around precise debates. But ideas of Europe are not just abstract or metaphorical conceits because they can also inspire and constrain action.

Centres and Peripheries

Chapter 8 examines the questions and complications surrounding apparent ‘centres’ and ‘peripheries’ of Europe. Late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century geographical texts appear to regard certain states or regions as especially significant to overall conceptions of the continent, thanks either to their reputed importance or their supposed fringe status. The chapter focuses on Russia, France, the Italian states, Greece and the Ottoman Empire, the German states, and Britain. Analysis shows, however, that it is problematic to distinguish too sharply between core and periphery areas of Europe as regions can instead be both central and marginal simultaneously.

Human Difference

Chapter 5 explains how debates about human origins and distinctiveness inform ideas about Europe. Late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century geography books often argue that the natural environment shapes human characteristics, and that Europeans are distinctive because they have been exposed to certain conditions. However, the books also propose that Europeans possess intrinsic, unchanging qualities. This tension highlights the complexities of contemporary racial thought, which combines ideas about inherent nature, inheritance, environmental influence, and aesthetics. Some geographical texts argue for a single European race, but others identify a range of European races, often premised on categorization of languages.

Religion

Chapter 3 discusses the role of Christianity in late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century British conceptions of Europe. Geography books are often explicitly worshipful texts: they celebrate divine creation and employ Christianity as a lens to interpret the whole world. But they also use the religion to argue for Europe’s unique superiority. Furthermore, Christianity is said to be evidence of European unity, even though denominational differences simultaneously present the continent as irreparably fragmented. In analysing Europe, geographical works grapple with theological questions, especially regarding divine and human agency.

Introduction

The Introduction defines the purposes and parameters of the book. British history and European history are often studied and taught as distinct fields, and the Introduction discusses more persuasive approaches which seek to assimilate the two, as well as the book’s own unique contribution to this process. It summarizes existing scholarship on the history of the idea of Europe, pointing out some disadvantages while also explaining how the book seeks to mitigate them. The Introduction ends with an account of the book’s scope and some reflections on how its themes relate to modern controversy about Britain and Europe.