Conclusion

This concluding chapter examines the question of whether or not large marine protected areas (MPAs) are a desirable and effective solution to ongoing ocean decline. It makes two seemingly at odds arguments, which it attempts to reconcile. The first argument is that the norm of large MPAs does represent an important paradigm shift in marine conservation, one that has given unprecedented attention to ocean biodiversity loss globally. The second argument qualifies this paradigm shift, claiming that the large MPA norm is still consistent with a neoliberal paradigm of environmentalism that insists that environmental protection not undermine economic growth.

A “Paper Park” in the Australian Coral Sea

This chapter examines the fraught efforts of subsequent Australian governments to protect the Australian Coral Sea over a 10-year period. The political economy of the Australian Coral Sea made efforts to protect it a contested stakeholder battle between the government, environmental groups, the ecotourism sector, and the commercial and recreational fishing sectors. Moderate levels of commercial activity in the area forced the government to repeatedly water down regulations over its decade-long consultation process. The end result, this chapter argues, was a “paper park” that does little to protect ocean ecosystems. The Coral Sea process demonstrates the outsized influence that even relatively minor extractive industry interests can often have over conservation policy.

The Political Economy of Conservation

This chapter introduces a strategic actor framework of environmental norm diffusion, which it uses to develop a theory of the diffusion of the norm of large marine protected areas. By incorporating domestic material interests into environmental norm diffusion, it builds norm diffusion theory to better explain why certain environmental norms gain global traction while others do not, as well as why there is considerable variation in how environmental norms are localized. The chapter also examines the interests of key stakeholder groups, including the state, extractive and non-extractive industry, environmental groups, and local communities. The framework foregrounds business influence to explain how governments attempt to reconcile new environmental norms with commercial interests. In some instances, business influence can lead to stronger protections, but more often tends to undermine conservation goals. This chapter analyses the potential and the limits of business influence over state conservation policy.

A New Era of Ocean Conservation

This chapter introduces the norm of large marine protected areas (MPAs). It defines the norm and poses the two questions that this book seeks to answer: (1) Why have large MPAs emerged as the solution of choice for governments. (2) What explains differences in how governments manage their large MPAs? It positions these questions within the norm diffusion literature in international relations and offers an alternative analytical approach to norm localization in international relations that foregrounds domestic political economies. The chapter then introduces the book’s process tracing methodology and details case selection and data collection.

Presidents Bush and Obama in the Pacific Remote Islands

This chapter analyses the campaign to expand the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument, which was first created by President George W. Bush in 2009 and then expanded by President Barack Obama in 2014 to 1,270,000 km2. It argues that the remoteness of the monument, and the minimal commercial activity occurring within it, provided environmental groups with considerable influence in lobbying for ambitious protections. The chapter goes on to explain that the commercial fishing industry was largely unsuccessful in its efforts to limit and scale back protections for the monument. Its inability to demonstrate high interest salience in the region weakened its bargaining position with the Obama White House, thereby paving the way for stricter conservation measures.

A Dive Tourism Haven in Palau

This chapter examines the Palauan government’s creation of the 500,000 km2 Palau National Marine Sanctuary. Palau’s critical dependence on its ecotourism sector—54% of GDP in 2015—meant that business interests and conservation objectives were largely aligned in Palau. At the same time, profits from commercial fishing in Palau’s waters went primarily to foreign-based fleets. The legislation for the sanctuary not only protected biodiversity, but was an effort to restructure the country’s commercial fishing industry to better benefit Palauans. Whereas most prior large marine protected area campaigns had been initiated by environmental groups, this one was initiated by Palauan President Tommy Remengesau Jr. This chapter demonstrates that, given a favorable political economy, business influence can sometimes lead to better protections.

Rethinking Ocean Protection

This chapter traces the initial emergence and spread of the norm of large marine protected areas (MPAs). It explains why the conditions were present for the emergence of large MPAs as the solution of choice for activists and governments looking to ramp up marine conservation efforts. Through the advocacy efforts of a few individuals and organizations, the large MPA norm began to take hold, one jurisdiction at a time, beginning with high-profile campaigns in Kiribati and the US. This chapter documents those initial successes, explaining how they created the conditions for the broader, global uptake of the large MPA norm.