From Migrants to Masters of the Middle East

This chapter considers the reasons for the success of the Parthians in their rise from a minor nomadic group to a dominant imperial force. It analyzes the most important cultural factors of the early Parthian state, namely the versatility of Parthian society, the innovations of the Parthian military, and the early Arsacids’ ability to manage and exploit these qualities to the benefit of the state through their capable leadership and dynastic stability. These important qualities of the Parthian state established the exceptional advantages the Parthians needed to create, maintain, and expand their power and influence within the hotly contested and dangerously competitive international environment of the Hellenistic Middle East.

Parthian Hegemony

This chapter emphasizes the efforts of Mithridates II to consolidate and expand his power and prestige to establish the Parthians as an unrivaled imperial force. Through a determined war against the Central Asian tribal confederations, Mithridates emerged as the savior of the empire. After restoring the eastern frontier, he turned his attention to expanding Parthian power and influence over the remaining Hellenistic rivals to the west, particularly Armenia and the dwindling Seleucid state. Mithridates utilized diplomacy and military force to dominate these rivals, expanding the network of vassal kings under his authority and taking the title “King of Kings.” The hegemonic campaign he began against the Seleucids eventually culminated in the temporary submission of the Seleucids to Parthian dominance under his immediate successors, ending a century-and-a-half-long rivalry. In the late second and early first centuries, Mithridates established the Parthians for the first time as the undisputed masters of the Hellenistic Middle East.

The Emergence of the Parthian State

This chapter introduces the establishment of the Parthian state on the Iranian plateau in the middle third century. The unexpected decline of the power of the Seleucid Empire in the 240s because of dynastic turmoil caused a crisis in the Hellenistic Middle East. This crisis encouraged eastern satraps to rebel and the nomadic Parni tribe (known afterward as the Parthians) to invade northeastern Iran. The successful invasion of the Parni to seize Parthia and establish a new kingdom, paired with the sudden rise of their regional power and the failure of the Seleucids to eliminate this new threat, helped create a new interstate system in which the Seleucids, Parthians, and the newly independent Bactrians shared power. The sweeping success of the first Parthian king, Arsaces I, established Parthia as a limited regional power; however, its existence for several decades remained precarious.

Introduction: Sources and Theory

This chapter discusses the neglect of the Parthians in the ancient sources and in modern historiography, while introducing the application of international relations theory to help provide a fuller appreciation of the geopolitical developments of the Parthian state and to help overcome some of the limitations of our sources. Although the Parthians are a part of the long tradition of strong Middle Eastern empires and the Hellenistic world created by the conquests of Alexander the Great, no other major world empire has been more overshadowed, misunderstood, or ignored. There have been relatively few comprehensive studies of the formation, growth, and international relations of the Parthian state. Most studies of this sort are either outdated, cursory, or, in the case of numerous recent attempts, of limited or questionable academic merit. No account of the Parthians’ history survives from their perspective. In reconstructing Parthian history, we must maneuver through Greek and Roman literary sources that dominate the narrative and often treat the Parthians hostilely or cursorily and mostly from a foreign perspective, and therefore, recent work in archaeology and numismatics is invaluable to the historical reconstruction of the Hellenistic Middle East. With the sometimes severe limitations of our available sources in mind, the potential insights that the theoretical framework of modern international relations theory, especially Realist Theory, offers to the study of Parthian political history are quite exciting, and this study is the first comprehensive attempt to apply modern international relations theory to the interpretation of Parthian expansionism and interactions with neighboring states.

The Fall of Bactria, the Rise of Parthia

This chapter considers the decline of Greek rule in Bactria under the mounting weight of external and internal pressures. Antiochus III successfully subdued Bactria as another subordinate allied kingdom; however, the devastation of nomadic incursions and growing Parthian aggression further undermined the power and authority of the Bactrian kings. The decline of Bactria was in stark contrast to the recovery and consolidation of Parthian power in the first half of the second century. By the latter half of the century, these factors and the sudden decline of Seleucid power to the west once again facilitated the rapid expansion of the Parthian state under a new ambitious ruler, Mithridates I. The efforts of the Seleucid king, Demetrius II, in the early 130s to quell the rising threat of the Parthians failed spectacularly, and for the first time the Parthian realm extended into Mesopotamia. The Parthians established an empire and emerged as the only major rival to Seleucid power in the Hellenistic Middle East.

The Climax of the Seleucid-Parthian Rivalry

This chapter focuses on the contexts and consequences of the last great Seleucid campaign in the Middle East. The new rivalry of the Seleucids and Parthians was highly volatile. Yet the potential strength of the Seleucid state remained considerable under a strong ruler. The enthusiastic Seleucid king, Antiochus VII, became determined to reestablish the undisputed power of the Seleucid Empire throughout Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau. His grand campaign against the Parthians in the early 120s was the greatest threat to the survival of the Parthian state since the campaign of Antiochus III almost a century before. Unfortunately for the Seleucids, it also culminated in the greatest defeat in their history. With their decisive victory, the Parthians were poised to push their advantage against the Seleucids into the lands of the Near East for the first time. However, a near catastrophic series of nomadic invasions along the eastern frontier of the Parthian Empire demanded the full attention of the Parthians. Once more the Parthians faced a considerable threat to the survival of their state as they suffered multiple severe defeats in their efforts to repulse nomadic incursions into the Iranian plateau. It was not until arguably the greatest of the Parthian monarchs, Mithridates II, became the new leader of the Parthians that they emerged as a world power.

The Empire Strikes Back

This chapter investigates the initial failure of the Seleucids in their attempt to reclaim the lost lands of the east. It discusses the failed eastern expedition of Seleucus II; however, its focus is the sudden renewal of Seleucid power under the determined ruler, Antiochus III, who desired to reestablish Seleucid hegemony over the Iranian plateau. Under Antiochus, the Seleucids retaliated against the recent efforts of the Parthians and Bactrians to establish strong independent kingdoms. His campaign throughout the Middle East in the 200s was the greatest since Alexander the Great. Antiochus took advantage of Parthian and Bactrian disorganization, reclaiming much of Parthia and establishing the new king of the Parthians, Arsaces II, as his subordinate allied ruler. This campaign in many ways stunted the growth of the Parthian state for decades; however, Antiochus did not destroy the Arsacids entirely, which allowed them eventually to reassert their power in the region.