Political, Social, and Cultural Legacies

A long struggle for political power that culminated in the establishment of Khalsa Raj in the third quarter of the eighteenth century was the most striking legacy of Guru Gobind Singh. Significantly, a wide range of literature was produced during this period by Sikh writers in new as well as old literary forms. The Dasam Granth emerged as a text of considerable importance. The doctrines of Guru Granth and Guru Panth crystallized, and influenced the religious, social and political life of the Khalsa. The Singhs formed the main stream of the Sikh Panth at the end of the century. Singh identity was sharpened to make the Khalsa visibly the ‘third community’ (tisar panth).

Ouster from Anandpur (1699–1704)

An important result of the institution of the Khalsa was escalation of tension. The hill chiefs did not want Guru Gobind Singh to stay at Anandpur on his own terms. In the first battle of Anandpur they failed to dislodge him. But they requested him to leave Anandpur as the cow’s feed (gau-bhat). Two battles were then fought outside Anandpur: one at Nirmoh and the other at Basoli. Guru Gobind Singh returned to Anandpur. With the support of the Mughal authorities, finally, the hill chiefs laid a long siege to Anandpur. Seeing no end to the armed conflict, they gave offers of safe passage to Guru Gobind Singh for voluntary evacuation of Anandpur. Aurangzeb’s oath on the Qu‘ran was used for this purpose. In view of the pressure from the people of the town, including some of his Khalsa, Guru Gobind Singh decided to leave Anandpur against his own judgment.

Literary Articulation (1685–98)

The court of Guru Gobind Singh developed steadily to emerge as a great centre of patronage for poets. The Sikh writers of the eighteenth century provide considerable information on the works produced at his court. Piara Singh Padam’s Darbari Ratan presents a more systematic record in which the poets talk about themselves and their patron at Anandpur. The poetry produced at the Guru’s court was different in character from the poetry patronized at the royal courts. It was meant to inspire people. The compositions included in the Dasam Granth and Sri Sarab Loh Granth, by and large, were produced before 1700. Some of them are remarkable for their social and political import.

New Perspectives and Sources

In recent decades a number of scholars have discussed new issues like Sikh identity, martyrdom in the Sikh tradition, and caste and gender in the Sikh social order. At the same time, new perspectives have developed on the Sikh scripture (Adi Granth) and the Dasam Granth as well as the legacy of Guru Gobind Singh. The literature produced at the court of Guru Gobind Singh has come to be seen as a contemporary source of great importance. Sikh literature of the eighteenth century period has also been explored by scholars in different disciplines. These new issues and sources are taken up in this chapter, along with the main sources in Persian and English.

The Last Commandment

Soon after Banda Singh’s departure for the Punjab, Guru Gobind Singh was wounded in his camp by a Pathan named Jamshed Khan. The wounds healed but reopened when Guru Gobind Singh stretched a strong bow. He told the Khalsa that his life had come to its end. They were anxious to know who would guide them. He said that the entire body of the Khalsa and the bani embodied in the Granth Sahib would henceforth be the Guru. Guru Gobind Singh passed away on 7 October 1708 to be cremated at Nanded. His adopted son, Ajit Singh, was given a ‘mourning robe’ at Bahadur Shah’s court on 10 November 1708. The property of Guru Gobind Singh was not taken over by the Mughal state under escheat, because it was regarded by Bahadur Shah as the property of a dervish.

Negotiations with Aurangzeb (1705–7)

Guru Gobind Singh managed to reach Kangar in Malwa after great losses. His two elder sons died fighting in the battle of Chamkaur and his two younger sons were put to death by Wazir Khan, the Muhgal faujdar of Sirhind, on their refusal to accept Islam. Guru Gobind Singh wrote to the emperor how his subordinates had set aside solemn oaths and attacked him and the Khalsa after the evacuation of Anandpur. In fact, the Guru had to fight another battle against Wazir Khan at Khidrana, now known as Muktsar, before he reached Talwandi Sabo (Guru ki Kashi) and stayed there till October 1706. Aurangzeb responded to the letter (called Zafarnama) and invited the Guru for a personal meeting to which he agreed. But Aurangzeb died on 20 February 1707, and Guru Gobind Singh decided to support Prince Mu‘azzam (now Bahadur Shah) in the war of succession.

In Battles and Politics (1685–98)

The invitation of the chief of Sirmaur (Nahan) was politically motivated. With his headquarters at Paunta, close to the borders of Sirmaur and Srinagar (Garhwal), Guru Gobind Das became more involved in politics. He successfully fought a battle at the nearby Bhangani in 1688. The chief of Sirmaur remained indifferent, and Guru Gobind returned to Makhowal. He founded Anandpur and built a number of fortresses. Bhim Chand, the chief of Kahlur, was now on good terms with him. On his request Guru Gobind participated in the battle of Nadaun against the Mughal faujdar of Jammu, and played a decisive role. But Bhim Chand made peace with the faujdar, and three Mughal expeditions were sent against Guru Gobind. Their failure induced Aurangzeb to send Prince Mu‘azzam to deal with the situation. He restored peace for about four years. In this peaceful phase Guru Gobind would institute the order of the Khalsa.

Socio-Political Import of Courtly Literature

A few of the compositions of the Dasam Granth represent devotional literature. The Jap Sahib and the Akal Ustat embody Guru Gobind Singh’s conception of God, His omnipotence and omnipresence, unity in diversity, prem bhagti, equality of human beings, and sectarian dispensations. The Shabads and Savvayyas dwell on true religious belief and practice. In the Var Durga ki, the Ram Avtar, and the Krishan Avtar, the deities Durga, Ram and Krishan are not supreme but instruments of the Supreme Being to strengthen the forces of good against evil. They are entitled to use physical force. In this context the Bachittar Natak declares and legitimizes the mission of Guru Gobind Singh to institute a panth for destroying the enemies of Guru Gobind Singh and his Sikhs. This panth was equated with the Khalsa, created eventually to establish Sikh Raj.

From Birth to Manhood (1666–85)

The early life of Guru Gobind Singh falls into three phases: (a) his birth in Patna in 1666 and his stay there for about 5 years; (b) his residence and literary and military education at Makhowal till the martyrdom of his father, Guru Tegh Bahadur, in 1675; and (c) the young Guru’s activity from 1676 to 1785 when he began to hunt as a part of his martial activity, to use the legendary ‘Ranjit Nagara’ (the drum of victory), and to keep elephants, which were not devoid of political significance. The chief of the adjoining of state of Kahlur became increasingly insistent on a formal acknowledgement of his authority by the Guru who persisted in refusal. In a situation of acute tension Guru Gobind Das decided to accept invitation of the chief of Sirmaur to reside in his territory.

Failure of Negotiations with Bahadur Shah (1707–8)

Guru Gobind Singh had an important meeting with Bahadur Shah at Agra in July 1707. It was recorded in the Akhbarat-i Darbar-i Mu‘alla that Guru Gobind Singh went fully armed into the presence of Bahadur Shah and received a medallion set with precious stones. On 2 October 1707 Guru Gobind Singh wrote to the Sikh sangat of Khara that his meeting with the emperor had settled matters and he would return to Kahlur (Anandpur) in a short time. However, Bahadur Shah had to go to Rajasthan first and then to Haidarabad, and he persuaded Guru Gobind Singh to accompany him. At Burhanpur in the summer of 1708 the Guru decided to go to Nanded. He appears to have been disillusioned with Bahadur Shah due to his evasive attitude. The first thing he did in Nanded was to commission Banda to go to the Punjab and lead the Khalsa in revolt in a bid for Khalsa Raj.