The role of acetylcholine and dopamine in dementia and psychosis in Parkinson’s disease

:Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder among elderly population, characterized by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain. To date, exact cause remains unknown and the mechanism of neurons death uncertain. It is typically considered as a disease of central nervous system (CNS). Nevertheless, numerous evidence has been accumulated in several past years testifying undoubtedly about the principal role of neuroinflammation in progression of PD. Neuroinflammation is mainly associated with presence of activated microglia in brain and elevated levels of cytokine levels in CNS. Nevertheless, active participation of immune system as well has been noted, such as, elevated levels of cytokine levels in blood, the presence of auto antibodies, and the infiltration of T cell in CNS. Moreover, infiltration and reactivation of those T cells could exacerbate neuroinflammation to greater neurotoxic levels. Hence, peripheral inflammation is able to prime microglia into pro-inflammatory phenotype, which can trigger stronger response in CNS further perpetuating the on-going neurodegenerative process.:In the present review, the interplay between neuroinflammation and the peripheral immune response in the pathobiology of PD will be discussed. First of all, an overview of regulation of microglial activation and neuroinflammation is summarized and discussed. Afterwards, we try to collectively analyze changes that occurs in peripheral immune system of PD patients, suggesting that these peripheral immune challenges can exacerbate the process of neuroinflammation and hence the symptoms of the disease. In the end, we summarize some of proposed immunotherapies for treatment of PD.

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Neurotoxic and Neuroprotective Role of Exosomes in Parkinson’s Disease

Current Pharmaceutical Design ◽

10.2174/1381612825666191113103537 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 25 (42) ◽

pp. 4510-4522 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Biancamaria Longoni ◽

Irene Fasciani ◽

Shivakumar Kolachalam ◽

Ilaria Pietrantoni ◽

Francesco Marampon ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Parkinson’S Disease ◽

Parkinson's Disease ◽

Potential Role ◽

Current Knowledge ◽

Biological Fluids ◽

Cell Communication ◽

Target Cells ◽

Cellular Debris ◽

The Brain

: Exosomes are extracellular vesicles produced by eukaryotic cells that are also found in most biological fluids and tissues. While they were initially thought to act as compartments for removal of cellular debris, they are now recognized as important tools for cell-to-cell communication and for the transfer of pathogens between the cells. They have attracted particular interest in neurodegenerative diseases for their potential role in transferring prion-like proteins between neurons, and in Parkinson’s disease (PD), they have been shown to spread oligomers of α-synuclein in the brain accelerating the progression of this pathology. A potential neuroprotective role of exosomes has also been equally proposed in PD as they could limit the toxicity of α-synuclein by clearing them out of the cells. Exosomes have also attracted considerable attention for use as drug vehicles. Being nonimmunogenic in nature, they provide an unprecedented opportunity to enhance the delivery of incorporated drugs to target cells. In this review, we discuss current knowledge about the potential neurotoxic and neuroprotective role of exosomes and their potential application as drug delivery systems in PD.

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The mechanistic role of thymoquinone in Parkinson's disease: focus on neuroprotection in pre-clinical studies

Current Molecular Pharmacology ◽

10.2174/1874467214666210105140944 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 14 ◽

Author(s):

Mohammad Najim Uddin ◽

Mohammad Injamul Hoq ◽

Israt Jahan ◽

Shafayet Ahmed Siddiqui ◽

Chayan Dhar Clinton ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Parkinson’S Disease ◽

Parkinson's Disease ◽

Clinical Studies ◽

Nigella Sativa ◽

Biological Effects ◽

Neuroprotective Activity ◽

Substantia Nigra Pars Compacta ◽

Movement Difficulties

: Thymoquinone (TQ) is one of the leading phytochemicals, which is abundantly found in Nigella sativa L. seeds. TQ exhibited various biological effects such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anti-tumoral in several pre-clinical studies. Parkinson's disease (PD) is a long-term neurodegenerative disease with movement difficulties, and the common feature of neurodegeneration in PD patients is caused by dopaminergic neural damage in the substantia nigra pars compacta. The neuroprotective activity of TQ has been studied in various neurological disorders. TQ-mediated neuroprotection against PD yet to be reported in a single frame; therefore, this review is intended to narrate the potentiality of TQ in the therapy of PD. TQ has been shown to protect against neurotoxins via amelioration of neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis, thereby protects neurodegeneration in PD models. TQ could be an emerging therapeutic intervention in PD management, but mechanistic studies have been remained to be investigated to clarify its neuroprotective role.

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