What is learned during mastery of a serial task: associations between adjacent and remote items, associations between an item and its ordinal position, or both? A clear answer to this question is lacking in the literature on human serial memory because it is difficult to control for a “naive” subject's linguistic competence and extensive experience with serial tasks. In this article, we present evidence that rhesus monkeys encode the ordinal positions of items of an arbitrary list when there is no requirement to do so. First, monkeys learned four nonverbal lists (1–4), each containing four novel items (photographs of natural objects). The monkeys then learned four 4-item lists that were derived exclusively and exhaustively from Lists 1 through 4, one item from each list. On two derived lists, each item's original ordinal position was maintained. Those lists were acquired with virtually no errors. The two remaining derived lists, on which the original ordinal position of each item was changed, were as difficult to learn as novel lists. The immediate acquisition of lists on which ordinal position was maintained shows that knowledge of ordinal position can develop without the benefit of language, extensive list-learning experience, or explicit instruction to encode ordinal information.
