Origins of the spice trade in the Indian Ocean.

2021 ◽  
pp. 65-79
Author(s):  
James F. Hancock
Keyword(s):  
Indian Ocean ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
Persian Gulf ◽  
Persian Empire ◽  
Trade Routes ◽  
Royal Road ◽  
The Indian Ocean ◽  
Spice Trade ◽  
International Trade Network

Abstract This chapter highlights the ocean transport and trade routes that facilitated the spice trade in the Indian ocean. This chapter consists of twelve subchapters which are Central Role of Rivers, Persian Gulf Routes, The Red Sea and Beyond, Early Indonesian Seafarers, Royal Road of the First Persian Empire, Persian and Greek Explorations, Arab Stranglehold on Egyptian Trade, War Elephants and Red Sea Travel, the way to India, The Roman Sea, Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and lastly, Rome's Breathtaking International Trade Network.

The Maritime and Continental Networks of Kīsh Merchants under Mongol Rule: The Role of the Indian Ocean, Fārs and Iraq

2019 ◽  
Vol 62 (2-3) ◽  
pp. 428-463 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yasuhiro Yokkaichi
Keyword(s):  
Indian Ocean ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
Persian Gulf ◽  
Muslim World ◽  
Economic Decline ◽  
Trade Routes ◽  
The Indian Ocean ◽  
The Persian Gulf ◽  
Mongol Rule

AbstractBased on a variety of literary and archaeological sources, notably the tariff lists produced in Rasulid Yemen, this study reconstructs the trade routes of the Kīsh merchants, demonstrating that the Persian Gulf route—between South and West India (Coromandel, Malabar, and Gujarat) and Iraq via the Persian Gulf—and the Red Sea route—between South and West India and Egypt via the Red Sea—were closely connected in the Mongol period. This not only manifests aspects of the proto-globalization in Mongol Eurasia but also argues against the supposed economic decline of post-1258 Baghdad and the economic centrality of Cairo in the post-Abbasid Muslim world.

Anahilapura: Understanding Its Expansive Network during the Time of the Chaulukyas

2018 ◽  
Vol 6 (2) ◽  
pp. 236-245
Author(s):  
Suchandra Ghosh
Keyword(s):  
International Trade ◽  
Indian Ocean ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
Persian Gulf ◽  
Trade Network ◽  
Trading Zone ◽  
The Indian Ocean ◽  
The Persian Gulf ◽  
Sea Area ◽  
International Trade Network

Abstract Gujarat’s role in the international trade network has long been researched. During the first half of the second millennium CE, the Indian Ocean emerged as a vast trading zone; its western termini were Siraf/Basra/Baghdad in the Persian Gulf zone and Alexandria/Fustat (old Cairo) in the Red Sea area, while the eastern terminus extended up to the ports in China. However, this essay privileges a single place, Anahilapura, which acted as a hinterland to many of the ports of Gujarat.

The Ottoman Administration of the Spice Trade in the Sixteenth-century Red Sea and Persian Gulf

2006 ◽  
Vol 49 (2) ◽  
pp. 170-198 ◽  
Author(s):  
Giancarlo Casale
Keyword(s):  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
Indian Ocean ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
Persian Gulf ◽  
Innovative Strategies ◽  
Formidable Challenge ◽  
The Indian Ocean ◽  
The Mediterranean ◽  
Spice Trade ◽  
Over Time

AbstractFollowing the Ottoman conquest of Egypt and the Levant in 1516-17, administrators of the empire began to experiment with several innovative strategies to increase the total volume of the spice trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean, and to maximize the state's share of its revenues. These became progressively more sophisticated over time, until by the end of the 1560s a comprehensive infrastructure was in place, including a rationalized empire-wide tax regime for regulating private trade, a network of "imperial factors" who bought spices for the sultan in overseas emporiums, and an annual convoy of spice galleys that shipped cargoes of state-owned pepper from the Yemen to the markets of Egypt and Istanbul. All of this, combined with natural advantages of geography and the goodwill of Muslim traders in the Indian Ocean, enabled the Ottomans to mount a formidable challenge to the "pepper monopoly" of the Portuguese Estado da India. À la suite de la conquête ottomane de l'Égypte et du Levant en 1516-17, les administrateurs de l'empire commencèrent à mettre en application diverses stratégies novatrices dans le but d'augmenter le volume total du commerce des épices entre l'océan Indien et la Méditerranée et de maximiser la part de l'État dans ses revenus. Ces stratégies se perfectionnèrent avec le temps et vers la fin des années 1560 une infrastructure complète était en place, incluant un régime fiscal repensé à l'échelle de l'empire afin de réglementer le commerce privé, un réseau de "facteurs impériaux" achetant des épices pour le compte du sultan dans les comptoirs d'outremer et un convoi annuel de galères transportant du Yémen aux marchés de l'Égypte et d'Istanbul des cargaisons de poivre appartenant à l'État. Grâce à tous ces éléments, de même qu'à leurs avantages géographiques naturels et à la disposition favorable des marchands musulmans dans l'océan Indien, les Ottomans purent présenter un défi de taille au "monopole sur le poivre" de l'Estado da India portugais.

A Note on Portuguese Reactions to the Revival of the Red Sea Spice Trade and the Rise of Atjeh, 1540–1600

1969 ◽  
Vol 10 (3) ◽  
pp. 415-428 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. R. Boxer
Keyword(s):  
Indian Ocean ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Indonesian Archipelago ◽  
The Indian Ocean ◽  
The Hague ◽  
Spice Trade ◽  
Straits Of Malacca

No reputable historian nowadays maintains that the Portuguese 16th- century thalassocracy in the Indian Ocean was always and everywhere completely effective. In particular, it is widely accepted that there was a marked if erratic revival in the Red Sea spice-trade shortly after the first Turkish occupation of Aden in 1538, though much work remains to be done on the causes and effects of this development. The Portuguese reactions to the rise of Atjeh have been studied chiefly in connection with the frequent fighting in the Straits of Malacca; and the economic side of the struggle has been less considered. The connection of Atjeh with the revival of the Red Sea spice-trade has been insufficiently stressed; though Mrs. Meilink-Roelofsz and Dr. V. Magalhaes Godinho have some relevant observations on this point in their recent and well documented works (Asian Trade and European Influence in the Indonesian Archipelago, 1500–1630, The Hague, 1962, pp. 142–46; Os Descobrimentos e a Economia Mundial, Vol. II, Lisboa, 1967, pp. 111–171). The purpose of this paper is to amplify the facts and figures which they give there, in the hope that someone with the necessary linguistic qualifications will be incited to make complementary researches in the relevant Indonesian, Arabian, or Turkish sources.

Sea-trade in Early Times

Antiquity ◽  
1941 ◽  
Vol 15 (59) ◽  
pp. 233-256 ◽  
Author(s):  
James Hornell
Keyword(s):  
Indian Ocean ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
Persian Gulf ◽  
Eastern Desert ◽  
Historical Records ◽  
The Third ◽  
Third Millennium ◽  
The Indian Ocean ◽  
Egyptian Desert ◽  
The Persian Gulf

The few indications that have come down to us of ancient sea-traffic between the countries lying around the shores of the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean are so fragmentary and obscure that it is extremely difficult to reconstruct any definite picture of their character and extent. In spite of this handicap study of the meagre evidence available compels the belief that movement by sea, although of a fluctuating character and confined for the most part to coastwise voyaging, was far more active and advanced in parts of this area in very early times than is generally realized. Had it been otherwise how could we interpret the signs graven on the rocks of the ravines of the Egyptian desert, and the transport by sea of great blocks of stone to Sumer in the time of Gudea of Lagash?The earliest evidence at present available comes from the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, though it does not follow that either area is the cradle of sea-faring. It consists of :—(A) innumerable prehistoric and predynastic petroglyphs of ships engraved upon the rocks of the eastern desert of Egypt, particularly those in the Wadi Hammamat region;(B) the discovery on Sumerian sites of diorite statues, stated specifically to have been brought by sea from foreign lands early in the third millennium B.C.;(c) the presence in the ruins of Ur, Kish, and Lagash of artifacts cut from the shell of the sacred Indian chank (Xancus pyrum);(D) historical records of trading expeditions sent by sea from Egypt to Somaliland extending from the Vth to the XIIth Dynasties, and repeated in the XVIIIth Dynasty.

scholarly journals Deoxygenation in Marginal Seas of the Indian Ocean

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
Author(s):  
S. Wajih A. Naqvi
Keyword(s):  
Indian Ocean ◽  
Oxygen Content ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
Bay Of Bengal ◽  
Persian Gulf ◽  
Oxygen Demand ◽  
Andaman Sea ◽  
Marginal Seas ◽  
The Indian Ocean ◽  
Oxygen Minimum

This article describes oxygen distributions and recent deoxygenation trends in three marginal seas – Persian Gulf and Red Sea in the Northwestern Indian Ocean (NWIO) and Andaman Sea in the Northeastern Indian Ocean (NEIO). Vertically mixed water column in the shallow Persian Gulf is generally well-oxygenated, especially in winter. Biogeochemistry and ecosystems of Persian Gulf are being subjected to enormous anthropogenic stresses including large loading of nutrients and organic matter, enhancing oxygen demand and causing hypoxia (oxygen < 1.4 ml l–1) in central and southern Gulf in summer. The larger and deeper Red Sea is relatively less affected by human activities. Despite its deep water having remarkably uniform thermohaline characteristics, the central and southern Red Sea has a well-developed perennial oxygen minimum at mid-depths. The available data point to ongoing deoxygenation in the northern Red Sea. Model simulations show that an amplified warming in the marginal seas of the NWIO may cause an intensification of the Arabian Sea oxygen minimum zone (OMZ). Increases in particulate organic carbon and decreases in oxygen contents of the outflows may also have a similar effect. In the Andaman Sea, waters above the sill depth (∼1.4 km) have characteristics similar to those in the Bay of Bengal, including an intense OMZ. As in the case of the Bay of Bengal, oxygen concentrations within the Andaman Sea OMZ appear to have declined slightly but significantly between early 1960s and 1995. The exceedingly isothermal and isohaline water that fills the deep Andaman Basin is also remarkably homogenous in terms of its oxygen content. A very slight but statistically significant decrease in oxygen content of this water also seems to have occurred over three decades preceding 1995. New information is badly needed to assess the extent of further change that may have occurred over the past 25 years. There have been some reports of coastal “dead zones” having developed in the Indian Ocean marginal seas, but they are probably under-reported and the effects of hypoxia on the rich and diverse tropical ecosystems – coral reefs, seagrasses, and mangroves – in these seas remain to be investigated.

scholarly journals DETECTION OF RED SEA AND PERSIAN GULF WATERS IN THE NORTHWESTERN PART OF THE INDIAN OCEAN BY ARGO FLOATS DATA

2021 ◽  
Vol 49 (4) ◽  
pp. 24-62
Author(s):  
K. V. Lebedev ◽  
B. N. Filyushkin ◽  
N. G. Kozhelupova
Keyword(s):  
Indian Ocean ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
Persian Gulf ◽  
Global Ocean ◽  
Joint Analysis ◽  
Northwestern Part ◽  
Original Result ◽  
The Indian Ocean ◽  
Somali Current ◽  
The Persian Gulf

Peculiarities of the spatial distribution of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf waters in the northwestern part of the Indian Ocean have been investigated based on the Argo float measurement database. 27128 profiles of temperature and salinity were taken into account. To process these data, we used the Argo Model for Investigation of the Global Ocean (AMIGO). This technique allowed us for the first time to obtain a complete set of oceanographic characteristics up to a depth of 2000 m for different time intervals of averaging (month, season, years). Joint analysis of the variability of hydrological characteristics within the depths of 0-500 m during the summer monsoon clearly showed the influence of the Somali Current on the dynamics of the waters of this region: the formation of the largest anticyclone (Great Whirl), coastal upwelling zones, redistribution of water masses in the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea. The main influence on the formation of the temperature and salinity fields is exerted by the Persian Gulf waters. The same analysis of the variability of fields within the depths of 600-1000 m showed the role of the outflow of the Red Sea waters from the Gulf of Aden in the formation of deep waters in this area during the year. And, finally, at depths of 1000-1500 m, a deep anticyclonic eddy is formed, the southern branch of which, moving westward, at 7˚N. reaches Africa and turns to the south with a narrow stream of Red Sea waters, and then, crossing the equator, reaches 15˚S. An original result was obtained for determining the temporal characteristics of the Somali Current: the time of its formation, the values of transports and life expectancy (according to model estimates of the estimated data for 7 years (1960–1996).

Arabic as a Language of the South Asian Chancery: Bahmani Communications to the Mamluk Sultanate

Arabica ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 67 (4) ◽  
pp. 409-435
Author(s):  
Meia Walravens
Keyword(s):  
Indian Ocean ◽  
Fifteenth Century ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
South Asian ◽  
Cultural Exchange ◽  
The South ◽  
Growing Body ◽  
The Indian Ocean

Abstract A growing body of literature on trade and cultural exchange between the Indian Ocean regions has already contributed significantly to our understanding of these processes and the role of language and writing within them. Yet, the question remains how Arabic correspondence played a part in communications between South Asian powers and the rulers in the Red Sea region. In order to begin filling this lacuna, this article studies epistolary writings from the Bahmani Sultanate (748/1347-934/1528) to the Mamluk Sultanate (648/1250-922/1517) during the second half of the ninth/fifteenth century. The contextualisation and discussion of three letters render insight both into the (up to now unstudied) issues at play in Bahmani-Mamluk relations and into the nature of these Arabic texts.

Mercantile Networks, Port Cities, and “Pirate” States: Conflict and Competition in the Indian Ocean World of Trade before the Sixteenth Century

2008 ◽  
Vol 51 (4) ◽  
pp. 543-577 ◽  
Author(s):  
Roxani Eleni Margariti
Keyword(s):  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
Indian Ocean ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
Persian Gulf ◽  
Port Cities ◽  
The Indian Ocean ◽  
The Persian Gulf ◽  
Indian Ocean World

AbstractThe prevailing image of the Indian Ocean world of trade before the arrival of western Europeans and Ottomans in the region in the sixteenth century is one of a generally peaceful, conflict-free realm dominated by cosmopolitan traders who moved easily across boundaries of geography, ethnicity, language, and religion. This paper modifies this picture by examining the evidence for conflict and competition between pre-modern maritime polities in the western end of the Indian Ocean. In the fifth/eleventh and sixth/twelfth centuries maritime polities on the islands of Kish in the Persian Gulf and Dahlak in the Red Sea antagonized Aden's supremacy as the region's most frequented entrepot. In the subsequent three centuries, the Ayyubids and Rasulids of Yemen also strove to control maritime routes and networks.L'historiographie en vigueur de l'Océan Indien à l'époque précédant la venue des Ottomans et des Européens au XVIème siècle, décrit une aire commerciale généralement paisible parcourue aisément par des négociants cosmopolites par-delà les obstacles géographiques, ethniques, religieux et linguistiques. Cette contribution modifie cette image par un examen des témoignages des Vème/XIème et VIème/XIIe siècles qui attestent les conflits et rivalités des cités portuaires de Kish en la Golfe de Perse, de Dahlak en la Mer Rouge contestant la suprématie d'Aden, l'entrepôt le plus fréquenté. Durant les trois siècles suivants, les Ayyûbides et Rasûlides du Yémen s'efforcèrent également de contrôler les routes et réseaux maritimes.

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