Confronting the Foreigner: Common Policies of Rashid al-Din and Liu Bingzhong on Mongol Rule in Iran and China

This article discusses the career of three historical figures who had a position of authority in the courts of the Ilkhans and the Great Khans of the Mongol Empire in China: Rashid al-Din Tabib (d. 1318), the Persian statesman and historian; Liu Bingzhong (d. 1274), Qubilai Khan's (r. 1260-94) Chinese counsellor; and Bolad Aqa (d. 1313), the famed Mongol tribesman. This study raises the question of whether Rashid al-Din's policies, when he was in office as the vizier of Ghazan Khan (r. 1295-1304), were modelled in some respects on the approach of the Chinese nobles—Liu in particular—to the Mongols during the early stages of the Mongol rule over China. In addition, taking into account Bolad's noticeable presence in the courts of the Mongols in Ilkhanid Iran and Yuan China, it seeks to shed light on his role as an intermediary and a possible conduit for Chinese political thoughts to reach Rashid al-Din.

In vino veritas. Wine and its Context in the Uyghur Society: an Insight to the Economic Life of the Silk Roads

This paper deals with viticulture, viniculture and their social context in the Turfan region from the West Uyghur period (9th–12th cc.) up to the end of the Mongol period (14th century). A comparative analysis of narrative sources alongside documents written in Old Uyghur (ca. 10th–14th cc.) and Middle Mongolian (13th–14th cc.) sheds new light on the interplay between wine production, commerce and state interest, demonstrating that wine was already one of the most important staple products of the Turfan region in the earlier period and a commodity of primary interest to the Mongol Empire. The article illuminates Old Uyghur sources’ depictions of ortok partners, stressing how their peculiarities differ from the better-known ortoq partnerships employed by the Mongol aristocracy, and highlights growing interest among the nobility in wine production and the institutionalization of vinicultural assets during the Mongol period. The author argues that these processes mirror changes in transportation and Eurasian interregional contacts under Mongol rule. Finally, despite the scattered and fragmentary nature of these sources on local economy and society, the author argues that they prompt a reevaluation of trade along the Silk Roads.

Further to the Eastern Policy of Alexander Nevsky

В статье рассмотрена восточная политика Александра Ярославича Невского – история его взаимодействия с монголами. В работе последовательно изложены сведения источников о контактах русского князя с представителями монгольской власти, предложена трактовка событий. Александр Ярославич довольно активно взаимодействовал с монголами. Зачастую эти действия носили вынужденный характер. Задача исследования – оценить характер политики Александра Невского по отношению к завоевателям. Анализ источников позволил сделать вывод о стремлении князя установить мирные отношения с монголами. Он взвешенно оценивал возможности Монгольской империи и русских земель. Александр Невский придерживался политики непротивления административным решениям монгольских властей. Действия Александра Ярославича нельзя связать с установлением системы монгольского господства в русских землях. Во время его княжения произошло только упорядочение системы сбора податей. В целом восточную политику Александра можно назвать прагматичной и соответствующей историческим реалиям Руси второй половины XIII в. The article considers the "Eastern" policy of Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky: his relationship with the Mongols. The author presents in detail the sourced information on the contacts between the Russian Prince and representatives of the Mongol authorities, offering her own interpretation of the events. Alexander Yaroslavich would often engage with the Mongols. Quite often by necessity, though not by choice. The study aims to estimate the nature of Alexander Nevsky's policy towards the invaders. Having analyzed the sources, the author concludes that the Russian prince attempted to make peace with the invaders. Alexander Nevsky was realistic about the potential of the Mongols and the Russians. He maintained the strategy of nonresistance to the Mongol authorities. However, we cannot associate the establishment of Mongol rule with Alexander Nevsky's actions. During his reign, only the taxation arrangement took place. Generally, Prince Alexander's relations with the East were strictly pragmatic in compliance with the Russian historical environment of the second half of the 13th century.

Daoists, the Imperial Cult of Sage-Kings, and Mongol Rule

This article demonstrates the central position that Daoists occupied in the representations of state power in north China under Mongol rule. In the mid-thirteenth century, Daoist Master Jiang Shanxin and his disciples, under Khubilai Khan’s patronage, actively rebuilt several temples of Confucian sage-kings in southern Shanxi province. Jiang Shanxin’s lineage was a product of dynamic interactions between the Mongol conquerors and local Chinese Daoists in which the two found common ground in sage-kings worship that had served to strengthen imperial legitimacy in previous dynasties. The strong Mongol-Daoist alliance in reordering the empire’s ritual space resulted in not just the revival of but also the creation of new ritual precedents for the Chinese imperial cult of sage-kings.

THE ROLE OF THE GEORGIAN CONTINGENT IN THE MONGOL TROOPS (1220-1265)

Mongol forces have appeared in the Caucasus since 1220. The desire of the empire was to create world domination. That`s why was necessary to have a powerful army, which included the conquered peoples, among whom were Georgians. Georgian queen and mtavars resisted the conquerors since the establishment of Mongol rule in the Caucasus. However, due to the lack of competent rulers and strong centralized power, the mtavars later recognized the power of the Mongol commanders and sided with the conqueror. As a result, Georgian Queen Rusudan also recognized the authority of the Mongols. Every ruler who recognized the power of the khan had to bear military duty - haraj, and pay tribute, among which were taxes on military needs. The article examines various military campaigns in which Georgians participated on the side of the Mongols: the battle against the Romanian sultan in 1243, the capture of Baghdad in 1258, the campaign in Egypt in 1260, the fight against the expansion of the Golden Horde in the early 60s of the thirteenth century. The paper reveals the peculiarity of the Mongolian taxes paid by Georgians - kalan, ulup, the technique of the Mongol battle - hashar, yabagan. Based on the source and historiographical database, an analysis of the attitude of Georgians to participate in the Mongolian military campaigns is conducted. In particular, the article covers cases when the Mongols suspected Georgians of treason, focusing on the anti-Mongol uprising of King David Ulu. The causes and consequences of the uprisings are explained on the basis of testimonies of Georgian and Armenian chronicles. Separately, the article reveals the participation of Georgians in the fight against the troops of the Golden Horde, which sought to capture the North Caucasus. Thanks to the participation of Georgians in battles and the construction of fortifications, the Hulaguids were able to protect the region from the invasions of the Juchids.