Locality in Syntax

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Adriana Belletti
Keyword(s):  
Argument Structure ◽  
Syntactic Structure ◽  
Target Position ◽  
Complex Object ◽  
Left Periphery ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Generative Syntax ◽  
Phase Theory ◽  
Operator Type ◽  
The One

Phenomena involving the displacement of syntactic units are widespread in human languages. The term displacement refers here to a dependency relation whereby a given syntactic constituent is interpreted simultaneously in two different positions. Only one position is pronounced, in general the hierarchically higher one in the syntactic structure. Consider a wh-question like (1) in English: (1) Whom did you give the book to <whom> The phrase containing the interrogative wh-word is located at the beginning of the clause, and this guarantees that the clause is interpreted as a question about this phrase; at the same time, whom is interpreted as part of the argument structure of the verb give (the copy, in <> brackets). In current terms, inspired by minimalist developments in generative syntax, the phrase whom is first merged as (one of) the complement(s) of give (External Merge) and then re-merged (Internal Merge, i.e., movement) in the appropriate position in the left periphery of the clause. This peripheral area of the clause hosts operator-type constituents, among which interrogative ones (yielding the relevant interpretation: for which x, you gave a book to x, for sentence 1). Scope-discourse phenomena—such as, e.g., the raising of a question as in (1), the focalization of one constituent as in TO JOHN I gave the book (not to Mary)—have the effect that an argument of the verb is fronted in the left periphery of the clause rather than filling its clause internal complement position, whence the term displacement. Displacement can be to a position relatively close to the one of first merge (the copy), or else it can be to a position farther away. In the latter case, the relevant dependency becomes more long-distance than in (1), as in (2)a and even more so (2)b: (2) a Whom did Mary expect [that you would give the book to<whom >] b Whom do you think [that Mary expected [that you would give the book to <whom >]] 50 years or so of investigation on locality in formal generative syntax have shown that, despite its potentially very distant realization, syntactic displacement is in fact a local process. The audible position in which a moved constituent is pronounced and the position of its copy inside the clause can be far from each other. However, the long-distance dependency is split into steps through iterated applications of short movements, so that any dependency holding between two occurrences of the same constituent is in fact very local. Furthermore, there are syntactic domains that resist movement out of them, traditionally referred to as islands. Locality is a core concept of syntactic computations. Syntactic locality requires that syntactic computations apply within small domains (cyclic domains), possibly in the mentioned iterated way (successive cyclicity), currently rethought of in terms of Phase theory. Furthermore, in the Relativized Minimality tradition, syntactic locality requires that, given X . . . Z . . . Y, the dependency between the relevant constituent in its target position X and its first merge position Y should not be interrupted by any constituent Z which is similar to X in relevant formal features and thus intervenes, blocking the relation between X and Y. Intervention locality has also been shown to allow for an explicit characterization of aspects of children’s linguistic development in their capacity to compute complex object dependencies (also relevant in different impaired populations).

scholarly journals Restructuring and the Proper Syntactic Analysis

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (14) ◽  
pp. 1-32
Author(s):  
Im Hong-Pin ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Argument Structure ◽  
Syntactic Structure ◽  
The Other ◽  
Syntactic Analysis ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Lexical Information ◽  
Sentence Subject

This paper aims to make it clear that syntactic analysis should be based on the lexical information given in the lexicon. For this purpose, lexical information of the syntactic argument is to be taken the form like [VP NKP, _, DKP, AKP] for the ditransitive verb give in English. The argument structure projects to syntactic structure. The NKP in this structure becomes VP-subject, but there is another subject called S-subject (Sentence-Subject) below S node. This amounts to Two-Subject Hypothesis for English. Between these two subjects, there intervene Conjugation-Like Elements, enriched by close examination of English verbal conjugation. Two-Subject Hypothesis perfectly accounts for peculiarities of the Expletive There (ET)construction. Restructuring can also explain the so-called Long Distance Wh-interrogative without introducing Wh-movement, and it can also explain why the imperative verbs are taking the base forms. It can also explain the characteristics of adjective imperatives by the same principles as applied to verbal imperatives. We try to deal with the other subtle problems, to get fruitful results. Restructuring approach, we think, provides more convincing explanations than the movement one.

Niuean

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Diane Massam
Keyword(s):  
Word Order ◽  
Argument Structure ◽  
Word Formation ◽  
Left Periphery ◽  
Sentence Structure ◽  
Noun Incorporation ◽  
The Pacific ◽  
Theta Role ◽  
Predicate Argument Structure

This book presents a detailed descriptive and theoretical examination of predicate-argument structure in Niuean, a Polynesian language within the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian family, spoken mainly on the Pacific island of Niue and in New Zealand. Niuean has VSO word order and an ergative case-marking system, both of which raise questions for a subject-predicate view of sentence structure. Working within a broadly Minimalist framework, this volume develops an analysis in which syntactic arguments are not merged locally to their thematic sources, but instead are merged high, above an inverted extended predicate which serves syntactically as the Niuean verb, later undergoing movement into the left periphery of the clause. The thematically lowest argument merges as an absolutive inner subject, with higher arguments merging as applicatives. The proposal relates Niuean word order and ergativity to its isolating morphology, by equating the absence of inflection with the absence of IP in Niuean, which impacts many aspects of its grammar. As well as developing a novel analysis of clause and argument structure, word order, ergative case, and theta role assignment, the volume argues for an expanded understanding of subjecthood. Throughout the volume, many other topics are also treated, such as noun incorporation, word formation, the parallel internal structure of predicates and arguments, null arguments, displacement typology, the role of determiners, and the structure of the left periphery.

Argument structure licensing and Englishhave

2011 ◽  
Vol 48 (1) ◽  
pp. 71-105 ◽  
Author(s):  
KYUMIN KIM
Keyword(s):  
Empirical Evidence ◽  
Argument Structure ◽  
Syntactic Structure ◽  
Causative Constructions ◽  
Theoretical Claim ◽  
Possessive Constructions ◽  
Typological Classification

This paper provides a unified syntactic account of the distribution of Englishhavein causative constructions (e.g.John had Mary read a book) and experiencer constructions (e.g.John had the student walk out of his classroom). It is argued thathaveis realized in the context of anapplicative head(Appl) and an event-introducer v, regardless of the type of v.Haveis spelled out in the causative when Appl merges under vCAUSE, and in the experiencer construction when Appl merges under vBE. This proposal is extended tohavein possessive constructions (e.g.John has a hat/a brother):haveis realized in the context of vBEand Appl. The proposed account provides empirical evidence for expanding the distribution of Appl: (i) a causative can take ApplP as a complement, which was absent in Pylkkänen's (2008) typological classification, and (ii) Appl can merge above Voice, contrary to Pylkkänen's analysis in which Appl is argued to always merge below VoiceP, never above. Moreover, the proposed account supports the theoretical claim that argument structure is licensed by functional syntactic structure; in particular, it shows that the relevant functional heads are not aspectual heads, but Appl and v.

Documenting the Ikpana interrogative system

2021 ◽  
Vol 42 (1) ◽  
pp. 63-100
Author(s):  
Jason Kandybowicz ◽  
Bertille Baron Obi ◽  
Philip T. Duncan ◽  
Hironori Katsuda
Keyword(s):  
Comprehensive Treatment ◽  
Left Periphery ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Southeastern Part ◽  
Endangered Language ◽  
Research Questions ◽  
Volta Region ◽  
Movement Asymmetry ◽  
Syntactic Properties

Abstract This article provides a comprehensive treatment of the interrogative system of Ikpana (ISO 639-3: lgq), an endangered language spoken in the southeastern part of Ghana’s Volta region. The article features a description and analysis of both the morphosyntax and intonation of questions in the language. Polar questions in Ikpana are associated with dedicated prosodic patterns and may be segmentally marked. As for wh- interrogatives, Ikpana allows for optional wh- movement. Interrogative expressions may appear clause-internally in their base-generated positions or in the left periphery followed by one of two optionally droppable particles with distinct syntactic properties. In this way, wh- movement structures are either focus-marked constructions or cleft structures depending on the accompanying particle. We identify an interesting wh- movement asymmetry – unlike all other wh- movement structures, ‘how’ questions may not be formed via the focus-marked or cleft strategy. We document a number of other attested wh- structures in the language, including long-distance wh- movement, partial wh- movement, long-distance wh- in-situ, and multiple wh- questions. We argue that by allowing our documentation efforts to be shaped and guided by theoretically driven research questions, we reach deeper levels of description than would have been possible if approached from a purely descriptive-documentary perspective.

scholarly journals Use of battery swapping for improving environmental balance and price-performance ratio of electric vehicles

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Steffen Schmidt
Keyword(s):  
Electric Vehicles ◽  
Performance Ratio ◽  
Practical Implementation ◽  
Sustainable Mobility ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Environmentally Sustainable ◽  
Battery Capacity ◽  
Battery Packs ◽  
Environmental Balance ◽  
The One

<p> There is a simple concept that can significantly improve the environmental balance of battery electric vehicles and at the same time avoid the known disadvantages of these vehicles (short range, long charging times, high acquisition costs) without having to wait for further developed batteries or a higher proportion of green electricity. For this purpose, the vehicles are equipped with built-in batteries for short and medium distances and are therefore sufficient for the majority of daily journeys. For long-distance journeys, the driver borrows charged additional battery packs at swapping stations, which are automatically inserted into a standardised exchange slot within a few minutes. This paper focuses on the improvements in electric vehicles that can be achieved by combining built-in and exchangeable battery technique and also on the practical feasibility of the concept. It is shown that the battery capacity required for the entire vehicle fleet can be significantly reduced. The resulting ecological advantages on the one hand and grid-stabilising effects of a nationwide network of swapping stations on the other hand, support the transition to environmentally sustainable mobility. The characteristics of the concept presented are advantageous for its practical implementation. The acceptance by customers and manufacturers can thus be improved compared to previous battery swapping systems. The loan system for the exchange batteries may be designed conveniently and information security as well as data protection will be strictly complied.</p>

scholarly journals Tunnekausatiivilauseen argumenttirakenne I

Virittäjä ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 123 (3) ◽  
Author(s):  
Saara Huhmarniemi
Keyword(s):  
Word Order ◽  
Argument Structure ◽  
Contextual Factors ◽  
Generative Syntax ◽  
Embedded Clause ◽  
Open Question ◽  
Syntactic Theories

Tunnekausatiivilauseet luokitellaan usein omaksi lausetyypikseen, johon kuuluu tunnetta tai tuntemusta ilmaiseva verbi (tunnekausatiivi), partitiivisijainen kokija ja nominatiivimuotoinen aiheuttaja. Tunnekausatiivilauseen aiheuttaja- ja kokija-argumenttien asemaa syntaktisessa rakenteessa on pidetty avoimena kysymyksenä ja rakenteen on arvioitu jopa olevan muutoksessa. Tässä artikkelissa käydään generatiivisen kieliopin kehyksessä läpi argumentti-rakenteeseen liittyviä kieliopillisia testejä, jotka koskevat esimerkiksi kongruenssia, anaforien sidontaa ja sanajärjestystä. Testien perusteella voidaan havaita, että kun tunnekausatiivilauseen aiheuttaja on NP, se sijaitsee tyypillisesti argumenttirakenteessa ylempänä kuin partitiivimuotoinen kokija. Tätä tulosta verrataan Suomi24-korpusaineistosta tehtyihin havaintoihin, joiden perusteella kokija esiintyy useammin verbin edellä kuin aiheuttaja. Tunnekausatiivilauseen sanajärjestyksen vaihtelun katsotaan olevan sidoksissa puhetilanteeseen ja argumenttien ominaisuuksiin.  Tämä artikkeli on osa kahden artikkelin sarjaa. Sarjan toisessa osassa tarkastellaan lausemaisten aiheuttajien asemaa tunnekausatiivilauseen argumenttirakenteessa.   The argument structure of the Finnish experiencer construction I: An NP causer This article investigates the Finnish experiencer construction, which involves a psychological predicate and two optional arguments: the nominative causer and the partitive experiencer. The argument structure of the Finnish experiencer construction has ­remained an open question in syntactic theories. In this paper, several grammatical tests concerning congruence, binding and word order are applied in the framework of generative syntax. They suggest that when the nominative causer is an NP, it typically occupies a higher position in the argument structure than the partitive experiencer. This result is evaluated against data from the Suomi24 corpus, which reveals that the partitive experiencer occurs preverbally more frequently than the nominative causer. The article asserts that the word order of the Finnish experiencer construction reflects contextual factors and discourse features of the arguments. This article is the first in a series of two. The second article investigates experiencer constructions with an embedded clause as a causer argument.

scholarly journals Reconstructing Pre-Industrial Long Distance Roads in a Hilly Region in Germany, Based on Historical and Archaeological Data

2017 ◽  
Vol 1 (2) ◽  
pp. 642-660 ◽  
Author(s):  
Irmela Herzog
Keyword(s):  
Cross Sections ◽  
Lidar Data ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Early 19Th Century ◽  
Digital Elevation ◽  
Hilly Region ◽  
Local Accuracy ◽  
Cost Paths ◽  
Elevation Model ◽  
The One

The aim of this contribution is on the one hand to map pre-industrial long distance roads located in a hilly region east of Cologne, Germany, as exactly as possible and on the other hand to assess the accuracy of least-cost approaches that are increasingly applied by archaeologists for prehistoric road reconstruction. Probably the earliest map covering the study area east of Cologne dates back to 1575. The map is distorted so that rectification is difficult. But it is possible to assess the local accuracy of the map and to transfer the approximate routes to a modern map manually. Most of the area covered by the 1575 map is also depicted on a set of more accurate maps created in the early 19th century and a somewhat later historical map set (ca. 1842 AD). The historical roads on these rectified historical maps close to the approximate roads were digitized and compared to the outcomes of least-cost analysis, specifically least-cost paths and accessibility maps. Based on these route reconstructions with limited accuracy, Lidar data is checked to identify remains of these roads. Several approaches for visualizing Lidar data are tested to identify appropriate methods for detecting sunken roads. Possible sunken roads detected on the Lidar images were validated by checking cross sections in the digital elevation model and in the field.

scholarly journals Attending to Entities for Better Text Understanding

2020 ◽  
Vol 34 (05) ◽  
pp. 7554-7561
Author(s):  
Pengxiang Cheng ◽  
Katrin Erk
Keyword(s):  
Large Scale ◽  
Human Performance ◽  
State Of The Art ◽  
Syntactic Structure ◽  
Semantic Knowledge ◽  
Training Data ◽  
Language Models ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Future Directions ◽  
Text Understanding

Recent progress in NLP witnessed the development of large-scale pre-trained language models (GPT, BERT, XLNet, etc.) based on Transformer (Vaswani et al. 2017), and in a range of end tasks, such models have achieved state-of-the-art results, approaching human performance. This clearly demonstrates the power of the stacked self-attention architecture when paired with a sufficient number of layers and a large amount of pre-training data. However, on tasks that require complex and long-distance reasoning where surface-level cues are not enough, there is still a large gap between the pre-trained models and human performance. Strubell et al. (2018) recently showed that it is possible to inject knowledge of syntactic structure into a model through supervised self-attention. We conjecture that a similar injection of semantic knowledge, in particular, coreference information, into an existing model would improve performance on such complex problems. On the LAMBADA (Paperno et al. 2016) task, we show that a model trained from scratch with coreference as auxiliary supervision for self-attention outperforms the largest GPT-2 model, setting the new state-of-the-art, while only containing a tiny fraction of parameters compared to GPT-2. We also conduct a thorough analysis of different variants of model architectures and supervision configurations, suggesting future directions on applying similar techniques to other problems.

PLASMODESMAL MODIFICATIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF TOSPO VIRUS IN POTATO AND TOMATO

1999 ◽  
Vol 47 (4) ◽  
pp. 245-250 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ishwar D. Garg ◽  
S.M. Paul Khurana
Keyword(s):  
Long Distance ◽  
Phloem Tissue ◽  
Cortical Cells ◽  
Electron Dense Material ◽  
Phloem Parenchyma ◽  
Long Distance Transport ◽  
Infected Tomato ◽  
Sieve Tubes ◽  
The One ◽  
Distance Transport

The tospovirus isolate on tomato was found to be systemic while the one on potato was non-systemic. The virus was present in all the tissues except xylem vessels in tomato, while it was often found only in the cortical cells of potato stems. Virions were detected in all cells of phloem tissue in tomato, while none were present in the case of potato. Plasmodesmata were present between phloem parenchyma and the phloem sieve tubes in infected tomato but none were present in infected potato. There were pronounced plasmodesmal changes in response to infection in tomato. These included dissolution of the desmotubule (central rod-like structure), making the plasmodesmata pore-like structures with a diameter of ca. 45 nm, which contained electron-dense material, presumably ribonucleoprotein of the virus. No such changes were found in infected potato. These results of comparative studies suggested that the virus was non-systemic in potato due to its non-loading into the phloem and consequently lacked long distance transport.

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