6. Logic

2018 ◽  
pp. 88-99
Author(s):  
Brad Inwood
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
Propositional Logic ◽  
Narrow Sense ◽  
Valid Inference ◽  
Modal Syllogistic ◽  
Stoic Logic

‘Logic’ explains that logic has a broad and a narrow sense in Stoic theory and deals with a subset of sayables and meanings. Their logic is close to what we would call propositional logic. Chrysippus was the pioneer and genius of Stoic logic. He seems to have held that in simple assertoric logic all valid inference forms could be reduced to combinations of five basic and indemonstrable argument forms, with the assistance of several other logical and metalogical principles. The Stoics also worked extensively on modal syllogistic and other areas of research in logic with a sophistication not paralleled in some cases until the 20th century.

The Development of Modus Ponens in Antiquity : From Aristotle to the 2nd Century AD

Phronesis ◽  
2002 ◽  
Vol 47 (4) ◽  
pp. 359-394 ◽  
Author(s):  
Susanne Bobzien
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
Propositional Logic ◽  
Late Antiquity ◽  
Modus Ponens ◽  
Classical Propositional Logic ◽  
Aristotelian Logic ◽  
Gradual Development ◽  
Stoic Logic ◽  
Short Presentation

Abstract'Aristotelian logic', as it was taught from late antiquity until the 20th century, commonly included a short presentation of the argument forms modus (ponendo) ponens, modus (tollendo) tollens, modus ponendo tollens, and modus tollendo ponens. In late antiquity, arguments of these forms were generally classified as 'hypothetical syllogisms'. However, Aristotle did not discuss such arguments, nor did he call any arguments 'hypothetical syllogisms'. The Stoic indemonstrables resemble the modus ponens/tollens arguments. But the Stoics never called them 'hypothetical syllogisms'; nor did they describe them as ponendo ponens, etc. The tradition of the four argument forms and the classification of the arguments as hypothetical syllogisms hence need some explaining. In this paper, I offer some explanations by tracing the development of certain elements of Aristotle's logic via the early Peripatetics to the logic of later antiquity. I consider the questions: How did the four argument forms arise? Why were there four of them? Why were arguments of these forms called 'hypothetical syllogisms'? On what grounds were they considered valid? I argue that such arguments were neither part of Aristotle's dialectic, nor simply the result of an adoption of elements of Stoic logic, but the outcome of a long, gradual development that begins with Aristotle's logic as preserved in his Topics and Prior Analytics; and that, as a result, we have a Peripatetic logic of hypothetical inferences which is a far cry both from Stoic logic and from classical propositional logic, but which sports a number of interesting characteristics, some of which bear a cunning resemblance to some 20th century theories.

Boole, George (1815–64)

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Theodore Hailperin
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Propositional Logic ◽  
Formal Language ◽  
Broad Sense ◽  
General Character ◽  
Mathematical Treatment ◽  
Narrow Sense ◽  
Modern Logic ◽  
Additional Axiom ◽  
Numerical Algebra

George Boole, a British mathematician, is credited with making a fundamental contribution to modern logic. If Leibniz’s manuscript essays on logic, effectively unknown until the end of the nineteenth century, are excluded, then Boole’s algebra of logic (1847, 1854) was the first successful mathematical treatment of one part of logic. The treatment was mathematical in the broad sense of using a formal language expressed in symbols with definite rules. It was also mathematical in a narrow sense of being closely modelled after numerical algebra, from which it differed by an additional axiom, x2=x. Letter symbols of this algebra were conceived as representing classes, 1 standing for a ‘universe’ of objects and 0 for the empty class. By identifying logical terms with their extensions, that is, with classes, inferences of a much more general character than those of the traditional syllogistic could be carried out. Boole also showed how this algebra could be used in propositional logic, presenting its earliest systematic general formulation.

scholarly journals Certain Questions of the Criminological Concept of the Definition of «Victim of a Crime»

2020 ◽  
pp. 175-183
Author(s):  
Dmytro VYHOVSKYI ◽  
Tetiana NIKIFOROVA
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
Criminal Code ◽  
Narrow Sense ◽  
Crime Victim ◽  
New Science ◽  
The World ◽  
Special Value ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Criminological Analysis

The article gives an analysis of the views of works of the Ukrainian and foreign scientists in the field of some victimological theories, in particular — definition «victim of a crime». Attention applies on the special value of provocative behavior of the victim in a case of commission of some crimes. Attention is drawn to the fact that provocative behavior is not only important for conducting a criminological analysis of a crime victim, but for qualification of some crimes too (for example — articles no. 118 and no. 124 of the criminal code of Ukraine). To achieve the objectives of the article, studies of criminologists were analyzed. Researches of scientists, who considered the problem of defining a «victim of crime» in terms of psychology, sociology, etc. were also analyzed. It has been concluded that criminological victimology (as an integral part of criminology) is a relatively new science. This situation is explained by the lack of interest of researchers in concepts of «victim mentality», «victimisation», «victim of a crime» till to the late 1940s 20th century. The conclusion was made about regularities between humanistic trends in the world and formation of the concept of "victim of crime" in the middle of the twentieth century. The conclusions are based on the study of the importance of victimological teaching in modern criminology science. Most of them are used by modern criminology scientists’ definitions of «victim of a crime». Attention is drawn to the ambiguity of understanding definition «victim of a crime». This is because some scientists suggest identifying «victim of a crime» with a «person, who suffered from the crime». In our opinion, his understanding is wrong. Also it is specified, that «victim of a crime» can be used in a narrow sense (as the person who is directly caused moral, physical or property damage) and in a broad sense (representative of a certain nation, race, religious trend, social group, concerning which a crime directly was not committed, but who cannot feel safe because of spread of these crimes). Keywords: victim mentality, victimisation, victim of a crime, victimological theories.

Ukrainization: the emergence and dissemination of the concept (first quarter of the twentieth century)

2020 ◽  
pp. 228-248
Author(s):  
Elena Yu. Borisyonok ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
Local Governments ◽  
Broad Sense ◽  
National Consciousness ◽  
Narrow Sense ◽  
Cultural Space ◽  
Emotional Perception ◽  
National Movement ◽  
The People

The article analyzes the origin of the concept “Ukrainization” and the interpretation of the word in the socio-political lexicon of the first quarter of the 20th century. Attention is paid to the assessment of the Ukrainization by supporters and opponents of the Ukrainian national movement. The leaders of the Ukrainian movement actively talked about the Ukrainization in the early twentieth century. They insisted on creating conditions for the realization of the rights of the Ukrainian nation to independent development. The concept has been repeatedly used by M. Hrushevsky and Ye. Chykalenko. With the beginning of the revolution in Russia, the need for the Ukrainization was constantly discussed in the Ukrainian Central Rada. The concept was used both in a narrow sense (the Ukrainization of the school, the Ukrainization of local governments, etc.) and in a broad sense (the Ukrainization of all life). The concept of “Ukrainization” was associated with the idea of the policy of building a national Ukrainian state and the process of development of national consciousness. Opponents of the Ukrainian movement insisted on the artificiality of the process of the Ukrainization. For example, S. N. Shchegolev considered it “an experiment on the people”. The emotional perception of the Ukrainization was associated with the attitude to the “Ukrainian question” and the way it was resolved, but not with its meaning. For the supporters of the Ukrainian project, the Ukrainization was a method of achieving the goals of the national movement. The Ukrainization was a policy aimed at establishing the Ukrainian character of the socio-cultural space of a certain territory.

Development of Reading Remediation for Dyslexic Individuals

2016 ◽  
Vol 224 (4) ◽  
pp. 240-246 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mélanie Bédard ◽  
Line Laplante ◽  
Julien Mercier
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
Scientific Literature ◽  
Behavioral Data ◽  
Educational Neuroscience ◽  
Reading Remediation ◽  
Functional Brain ◽  
Neurophysiological Data ◽  
Brain Correlates ◽  
Research Questions ◽  
The Brain

Abstract. Dyslexia is a phenomenon for which the brain correlates have been studied since the beginning of the 20th century. Simultaneously, the field of education has also been studying dyslexia and its remediation, mainly through behavioral data. The last two decades have seen a growing interest in integrating neuroscience and education. This article provides a quick overview of pertinent scientific literature involving neurophysiological data on functional brain differences in dyslexia and discusses their very limited influence on the development of reading remediation for dyslexic individuals. Nevertheless, it appears that if certain conditions are met – related to the key elements of educational neuroscience and to the nature of the research questions – conceivable benefits can be expected from the integration of neurophysiological data with educational research. When neurophysiological data can be employed to overcome the limits of using behavioral data alone, researchers can both unravel phenomenon otherwise impossible to document and raise new questions.

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