Construct Validity of the Stroop Color-Word Test: Influence of Speed of Visual Search, Verbal Fluency, Working Memory, Cognitive Flexibility, and Conflict Monitoring

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
José A Periáñez ◽  
Genny Lubrini ◽  
Ana García-Gutiérrez ◽  
Marcos Ríos-Lago
Keyword(s):  
Working Memory ◽  
Visual Search ◽  
Cognitive Flexibility ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Verbal Fluency ◽  
Word Reading ◽  
Color Word ◽  
Color Naming ◽  
Conflict Monitoring ◽  
Cognitive Mechanisms

Abstract Objective 85 years after the description of the Stroop interference effect, there is still a lack of consensus regarding the cognitive constructs underlying scores from standardized versions of the test. The present work aimed to clarify the cognitive mechanisms underlying direct (word-reading, color-naming, and color-word) and derived scores (interference, difference, ratio, and relative scores) from Golden’s standardized version of the test. Method After a comprehensive review of the literature, five cognitive processes were selected for analysis: speed of visual search, phonemic verbal fluency, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and conflict monitoring. These constructs were operationalized by scoring five cognitive tasks (WAIS-IV Digit Symbol, phonemic verbal fluency [letter A], WAIS-IV Digit Span, TMT B-A, and reaction times to the incongruent condition of a computerized Stroop task, respectively). About 83 healthy individuals (mean age = 25.2 years) participated in the study. Correlation and regression analyses were used to clarify the contribution of the five cognitive processes on the prediction of Stroop scores. Results Data analyses revealed that Stroop word-reading reflected speed of visual search. Stroop color-naming reflected working memory and speed of visual search. Stroop color-word reflected working memory, conflict monitoring, and speed of visual search. Whereas the interference score was predicted by both conflict monitoring and working memory, the ratio score (color-word divided by color-naming) was predicted by conflict monitoring alone. Conclusion The present results will help neuropsychologists to interpret altered patient scores in terms of a failure of the cognitive mechanisms detailed here, benefitting from the solid background of preceding experimental work.

scholarly journals Neural Dynamics of Conflict Control in Working Memory

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-14
Author(s):  
Khoi D. Vo ◽  
Audrey Siqi-Liu ◽  
Alondra Chaire ◽  
Sophia Li ◽  
Elise Demeter ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Working Memory ◽  
Stroop Task ◽  
Color Word ◽  
Color Naming ◽  
Control Task ◽  
Attentional Processing ◽  
Shared Representations ◽  
Color Representation ◽  
And Performance ◽  
External Stimuli

Abstract Attention and working memory (WM) have classically been considered as two separate cognitive functions, but more recent theories have conceptualized them as operating on shared representations and being distinguished primarily by whether attention is directed internally (WM) or externally (attention, traditionally defined). Supporting this idea, a recent behavioral study documented a “WM Stroop effect,” showing that maintaining a color word in WM impacts perceptual color-naming performance to the same degree as presenting the color word externally in the classic Stroop task. Here, we employed ERPs to examine the neural processes underlying this WM Stroop task compared to those in the classic Stroop and in a WM-control task. Based on the assumption that holding a color word in WM would (pre-)activate the same color representation as by externally presenting that color word, we hypothesized that the neural cascade of conflict–control processes would occur more rapidly in the WM Stroop than in the classic Stroop task. Our behavioral results replicated equivalent interference behavioral effects for the WM and classic Stroop tasks. Importantly, however, the ERP signatures of conflict detection and resolution displayed substantially shorter latencies in the WM Stroop task. Moreover, delay-period conflict in the WM Stroop task, but not in the WM control task, impacted the ERP and performance measures for the WM probe stimuli. Together, these findings provide new insights into how the brain processes conflict between internal representations and external stimuli, and they support the view of shared representations between internally held WM content and attentional processing of external stimuli.

A comparison of the cognitive processes underlying reading comprehension in native English and ESL speakers

2005 ◽  
Vol 8 (2) ◽  
pp. 131-155 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pauline B. Low ◽  
Linda S. Siegel
Keyword(s):  
Working Memory ◽  
Reading Comprehension ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Reading Fluency ◽  
Phonological Processing ◽  
Word Reading ◽  
Verbal Working Memory ◽  
Sixth Grade ◽  
Relative Role ◽  
Syntactic Awareness

The present study examined the relative role played by three cognitive processes — phonological processing, verbal working memory, syntactic awareness — in understanding the reading comprehension performance among 884 native English (L1) speakers and 284 English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) speakers in sixth-grade (mean age: 11.43 years). The performance of both groups of speakers were comparable on measures of word reading, word reading fluency, phonological awareness, phonological decoding fluency and verbal working memory. However, the ESL speakers lagged behind L1 speakers in terms of syntactic awareness. This study also emphasizes the importance of the three cognitive processes in establishing a common model of reading comprehension across English L1 and ESL reading.

An Hebrew Language Version of the Stroop Test

1988 ◽  
Vol 67 (1) ◽  
pp. 187-192 ◽  
Author(s):  
Loring J. Ingraham ◽  
Frances Chard ◽  
Marcia Wood ◽  
Allan F. Mirsky
Keyword(s):  
English Language ◽  
Word Reading ◽  
Color Word ◽  
Color Naming ◽  
Stroop Test ◽  
Language Version ◽  
Hebrew Language ◽  
Stroop Color Word Test ◽  
Lexical Content ◽  
College Educated

We present normative data from a Hebrew language version of the Stroop color-word test. In this sample of college-educated Israeli young adults, 18 women and 28 men with a mean age of 28.4 yr. completed a Hebrew language Stroop test. When compared with 1978 English language norms of Golden, Hebrew speakers were slower on color-word reading and color naming, similar on naming the color of incongruently colored names of colors, and showed less interference. Slowed color-word reading and color-naming may reflect the two-syllable length of the Hebrew names for one-syllable length English language colors; reduced interference may reflect the exclusion of vowels in much Hebrew printing and subjects' ability to provide competing, nonconflicting words while naming the color of words in which the hue and the lexical content do not match.

Transition of target-location signaling in activity of macaque lateral intraparietal neurons during delayed-response visual search

2014 ◽  
Vol 112 (6) ◽  
pp. 1516-1527 ◽  
Author(s):  
Satoshi Nishida ◽  
Tomohiro Tanaka ◽  
Tadashi Ogawa
Keyword(s):  
Working Memory ◽  
Visual Search ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Visual Discrimination ◽  
Target Location ◽  
Real Life ◽  
Neural Representation ◽  
Delayed Response ◽  
Response Modulation ◽  
Stimulus Offset

Neurons in the lateral intraparietal area (LIP) are involved in signaling the location of behaviorally relevant objects during visual discrimination and working memory maintenance. Although previous studies have examined these cognitive processes separately, they often appear as inseparable sequential processes in real-life situations. Little is known about how the neural representation of the target location is altered when both cognitive processes are continuously required for executing a task. We investigated this issue by recording single-unit activity from LIP of monkeys performing a delayed-response visual search task in which they were required to discriminate the target from distractors in the stimulus period, remember the location at which the extinguished target had been presented in the delay period, and make a saccade to that location in the response period. Target-location signaling was assessed using response modulations contingent on whether the target location was inside or opposite the receptive field. Although the population-averaged response modulation was consistent and changed only slightly during a trial, the across-neuron pattern of response modulations showed a marked and abrupt change around 170 ms after stimulus offset due to concurrent changes in the response modulations of a subset of LIP neurons, which manifested heterogeneous patterns of activity changes during the task. Our findings suggest that target-location signaling by the across-neuron pattern of LIP activity discretely changes after the stimulus disappearance under conditions that continuously require visual discrimination and working memory to perform a single behavioral task.

Color Priming Affects Stroop Interference

1983 ◽  
Vol 56 (2) ◽  
pp. 643-651 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lucinda McClain
Keyword(s):  
Stroop Task ◽  
Priming Effect ◽  
Word Reading ◽  
Color Word ◽  
Color Naming ◽  
Stroop Interference ◽  
Relative Speed ◽  
Discrete Trials ◽  
Color Priming

The effect of prior word and/or color activation on subsequent color naming was examined in a discrete-trials Stroop task. Both word and color primes increased color-word interference, and the magnitude of the priming effect increased as the number of priming dimensions increased. The maximal interference usually produced by incongruent Stroop stimuli was reduced when such stimuli were preceded by primes which activated both word and color dimensions. The results were discussed in terms of models which attribute color-word interference to the relative speed of word reading and color naming.

Two Forms of the Stroop Test

1983 ◽  
Vol 57 (3) ◽  
pp. 879-882 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ann Taylor ◽  
P. B. Clive
Keyword(s):  
Stroop Effect ◽  
Word Reading ◽  
Color Word ◽  
Color Naming ◽  
Stroop Test ◽  
Verbal Response ◽  
Card Sorting ◽  
General Measure ◽  
Interference Test

16 subjects performed a conventional chart-form and a card-sorting form of the Stroop color-word interference test. Interference scores on the two forms were positively and significantly correlated, while neither word reading nor color naming scores showed a significant correlation. It is suggested that the ‘Stroop effect’ has some, but limited, generality and that forms not requiring verbal response may be more useful than the traditional chart version in providing a general measure of interference proneness.

Time-Varied Noise Effects on Color-Word Test Performance

1979 ◽  
Vol 49 (3) ◽  
pp. 851-857
Author(s):  
George D. Ogden ◽  
Angela M. Rieck ◽  
Glynn D. Coates
Keyword(s):  
Test Performance ◽  
Word Reading ◽  
Color Word ◽  
Reaction Times ◽  
Color Naming ◽  
Low Noise ◽  
Broadband Noise ◽  
Noise Condition ◽  
Reading Task ◽  
Word Test

The effects of continuous and time-varied 85 dBA broadband noise on the performance of a Stroop-type color-word test and a related word-reading task were investigated. 10 subjects served in one of three groups receiving either continuous, periodic, or aperiodic noise. All subjects performed in both low noise (65 dBA) and high noise (85 dBA) conditions on 80 trials of both word reading and color naming. Median reaction times in the word-reading task were unaffected by either noise intensity or the time-varied aspects of the noise. However, median reaction times in the color-naming task were significantly elevated in the 85-dBA noise condition. Also, reaction times in the high aperiodic noise condition were significantly elevated relative to the continuous and periodic noise conditions. Results are discussed within the framework of arousal, filter, and information theories.

Clinical Spanish Norms of the Stroop Test for Traumatic Brain Injury and Schizophrenia

2014 ◽  
Vol 17 ◽  
Author(s):  
Genny Lubrini ◽  
José A. Periañez ◽  
Marco Rios-Lago ◽  
Raquel Viejo-Sobera ◽  
Rosa Ayesa-Arriola ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Traumatic Brain Injury ◽  
Brain Injury ◽  
Word Reading ◽  
Color Word ◽  
Color Naming ◽  
First Episode ◽  
Healthy Individuals ◽  
Schizophrenia Spectrum ◽  
Stroop Color Word Test ◽  
First Episode Schizophrenia

AbstractThe Stroop Color-Word Test is a useful tool to evaluate executive attention and speed of processing. Recent studies have provided norms for different populations of healthy individuals to avoid misinterpretation of scores due to demographic and cultural differences. In addition, clinical norms may improve the assessment of cognitive dysfunction severity and its clinical course. Spanish normative data are provided for 158 closed traumatic brain injury (TBI) and 149 first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorder (SCH) patients. A group of 285 Spanish healthy individuals (HC) was also considered for comparison purposes. Differences between groups were found in all Stroop scores with HC outperforming both clinical groups (p < .002 in all cases; d > .3 in all cases). TBI patients scored lower than SCH patients in word-reading (p < .001 and d = .6), and color-naming conditions (p < .001 and d = .4), but not in the color-word condition (p = .34 and d = .03). However, SCH patients exhibited a higher interference effect as compared to TBI (p < .002 and d = .5). Three sets of norms stratified by age and education (HC), and by education (TBI and SCH) are presented for clinical use.

Stroop Interference and Color-Word Similarity

1996 ◽  
Vol 7 (3) ◽  
pp. 150-157 ◽  
Author(s):  
Dale S. Klopfer
Keyword(s):  
Word Reading ◽  
Color Word ◽  
Color Naming ◽  
Neutral Stimulus ◽  
Stroop Interference ◽  
Conceptual Level ◽  
Word Similarity ◽  
Incongruent Color

Stroop interference refers to the finding that it takes longer to name the color of an incongruent color word (e g, the word blue shown in green) than it does to name the color of a neutral stimulus (e g, a series of number signs shown in green) Incongruent color-word stimuli can differ in the similarity between the color in which the word is printed and the color denoted by the word (e g, the word blue shown in green vs yellow) This research shows that the amount of interference obtained is related to color-word similarity, suggesting that word-reading and color-naming processes interact at a conceptual level prior to response emission

scholarly journals Nationally Representative Evidence on the Association Between Preschool and Executive Function Skills Throughout Elementary School

AERA Open ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 7 ◽  
pp. 233285842110483
Author(s):  
Michael Little
Keyword(s):  
Working Memory ◽  
Elementary School ◽  
Executive Function ◽  
Cognitive Flexibility ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Preschool Attendance ◽  
Nationally Representative ◽  
Goal Directed Behavior ◽  
Research And Policy ◽  
Kindergarten Class

Executive function skills are a set of cognitive processes that help individuals to engage in goal-directed behavior and have been linked to benefits in academic achievement and other learning-related outcomes. Recently, there has been interest in understanding how attending center-based preschool may relate to the development of executive function skills. This study used the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010–2011 (n ~ 9,270) to examine the association between preschool attendance and executive function skills in each grade of elementary school. The results of the analysis suggest small initial associations of preschool attendance with some subdomains of executive function (working memory) but not others (cognitive flexibility). These associations are heterogenous based on preschool type (i.e., public vs. private). The longitudinal analysis revealed rapid attenuation of initially positive associations, but also some indications of so-called “sleeper effects” emerged in late elementary school for working memory. Implications for research and policy are discussed.

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