2 The Evolution of the Law of Weaponry

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
Boothby William H
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Arms Control ◽  
Middle Part ◽  
Biological Weapons ◽  
Chemical Weapons ◽  
Cluster Munitions ◽  
The Hague ◽  
The Law ◽  
Made In

Chapter 2 explains how from its roots in the middle part of the nineteenth century, weapons law has developed during the ensuing one hundred and sixty years into the more comprehensive but still incomplete body of law we have today. The evolution of early treaties such as the St Petersburg Declaration of 1868, certain Regulations and Declarations made in The Hague in 1899 and 1907, and the Geneva Gas protocol of 1925 is explained by reference to the authoritative writings of contemporary experts and jurists. The significance of those early writings in inspiring the development of core principles that lie at the heart of this body of law is noted. The picture that emerges is of a body of law that responds, sometimes belatedly, to battlefield events. The emergence of more modern law in the form, for example, of arms control treaties addressing chemical weapons, biological weapons, anti-personnel landmines and cluster munitions is charted.

9 Poison, Poisoned Weapons, Asphyxiating Gases, Biological and Chemical Weapons

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
Boothby William H
Keyword(s):  
Synthetic Biology ◽  
Arms Control ◽  
Biological Weapon ◽  
Biological Weapons ◽  
Chemical Weapons ◽  
Novel Technologies ◽  
Chemical Agents ◽  
The Status ◽  
Biological Weapons Convention

Chapter 9 looks at a group of weapon technologies. The long-standing and customary prohibition of the use of poisons and of poisoned weapons is examined first. Then the discussion addresses efforts in 1899 to address the use of asphyxiating gases, pointing out that a prohibition on use was only achieved in 1925 with the adoption of the Geneva Protocol. While that protocol also addressed bacteriological methods of warfare, comprehensive arms control provision prohibiting all forms of biological weapon had to await the adoption in 1972 of the Biological Weapons Convention, whereas similar provision in relation to chemical weapons was not achieved until 1993. Both of these conventions are considered, and the status of the prohibition on use, and of related provisions, in both treaties is analysed. Novel technologies including incapacitating chemical agents, synthetic biology and the use of viruses are also considered.

Plainchant in nineteenth-century England: a review of some major publications of the period

1997 ◽  
Vol 6 (1) ◽  
pp. 53-74
Author(s):  
Bennett Zon
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Eleventh Century ◽  
Middle Part ◽  
Rosetta Stone ◽  
Facsimile Edition ◽  
History Of ◽  
First Time ◽  
Made In

The history of plainchant in the nineteenth century is dominated by the various attempts at scholarly restoration both in Britain and abroad. Up to the middle part of the century these efforts were concentrated in France, although demands for revival were being voiced in Italy by Pietro Alfieri, and in Germany by Franz Xaver Witt, amongst others. The first scholarly attempt at the restoration of plainchant was made in 1846 as a result of Jean-Louis-Félix Danjou's discovery of the eleventh-century tonary of St Bénigne de Dijon. Like the Rosetta stone, it enabled scholars to decipher the meaning of symbols which had previously eluded them. In this case the manuscript is notated with both neumes and alphabetic script, so that for the first time the melodic ductus of ancient neumes could be interpreted with certainty. This manuscript became the source for the Rheims-Cambrai Graduale Romanum complectens missas, printed in Paris in 1851, later to be published under the auspices of Cardinal Sterckx of Mechelen and edited by Duval and Bogaerts. Despite the quality of the Mechlin Graduale, it did not fail to cause immense controversy. Louis Vitet, for example, ‘was astonished that a group of four notes in the Paris gradual of 1826 should be replaced in the Rheims-Cambrai edition with a melisma of 48 notes’. Other efforts at revival were equally plagued by controversy. Lambillotte's facsimile edition of St Gall 359, published, in 1851, proved to be ‘completely unreliable’, and the 1857 Parisian Graduale romanum upon which it is based ‘contained truncated melodies’.

The Biological Weapons Convention: An overview

1997 ◽  
Vol 37 (318) ◽  
pp. 251-265 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jozef Goldblat
Keyword(s):  
Hague Convention ◽  
Biological Agents ◽  
League Of Nations ◽  
Biological Weapons ◽  
Chemical Weapons ◽  
Chemical And Biological Weapons ◽  
Ancient Times ◽  
Pathogenic Agents ◽  
Biological Weapons Convention ◽  
Made In

Since ancient times, the use in war of poison and pathogenic agents has been considered a treacherous practice. It was condemned by international declarations and treaties, notably by the 1907 Hague Convention (IV) respecting the laws and customs of war on land. Efforts to strengthen this prohibition resulted in the conclusion, in 1925, of the Geneva Protocol which banned the use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, usually referred to as chemical weapons, as well as the use of bacteriological methods of warfare. The latter are now understood to include not only bacteria, but also other biological agents, such as viruses or rickettsiae which were unknown at the time the Geneva Protocol was signed. (On 1 January 1997, 132 States were party to this Protocol.) However, the Geneva Protocol did not prohibit the development, production and stockpiling of chemical and biological weapons. Attempts to achieve a complete ban were made in the 1930s in the framework of the League of Nations, but with no success.

scholarly journals Blinded Like a State: The Revolt against Civil Registration in Nineteenth-Century Brazil

2006 ◽  
Vol 49 (1) ◽  
pp. 5-39 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mara Loveman
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Local Authorities ◽  
Civil Registration ◽  
Women And Children ◽  
The Law

The first reports of popular disturbances in connection with Decree 798, calling for obligatory civil registration of births and deaths in the Brazilian empire, surfaced in the early days of January 1852. In the ensuing weeks, men, women, and children from across the impoverished northeastern Brazilian backlands convened in small settlements and towns to protest the decree. Local authorities reported being forced to abandon their posts, fleeing from the “mass of ignorants,” who, armed with knives and stones, threatened violence against those who would implement the law. Disturbances were reported in at least thirty-one localities, with crowds estimated at one hundred to several thousand people.

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