Identification, Chemical and Biological Management of Phytopythium vexans, the Causal Agent of Phytopythium Root and Crown Rot of Woody Ornamentals

Soilborne diseases caused by pathogens such as Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Verticillium, and Pythium species are the most important diseases of woody ornamentals. Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) and red maple (Acer rubrum) ‘October Glory’ plants grown in containers and fields in Tennessee have shown root and crown rot symptoms with dark brown to black lesions in 2017 and 2018. The objective of this research was to isolate and identify pathogens affecting ginkgo and red maple plants in nurseries of Tennessee and develop fungicide/biofungicide management recommendations for nursery producers. Isolations were made from the infected roots. Several Phytophthora-like colonies with spherical zoospores, filamentous to globose oogoni, and whitish mycelium, were isolated on V8-PARPH medium. For confirming identity, total genomic DNA was extracted followed by the sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions, and large subunit (LSU) of the nuclear ribosomal RNA (rRNA) as well as cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (Cox I) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit II (Cox II) of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Based on morphological and molecular analysis, Phytopythium vexans was described as a causal agent of crown and root rot from the infected ginkgo and red maple plants. To complete Koch’s postulates, a pathogenicity test was performed by drenching 100 ml V8 agar medium slurry of P. vexans inoculum on 1-year-old potted ginkgo plant root systems as well as red maple ‘October Glory’. Necrotic lesion development was observed in the root system 45 days after inoculation and P. vexans was re-isolated from the roots of both ginkgo and red maple. All control ginkgo and red maple plants remained disease-free and no pathogen was re-isolated. In addition, the efficacy of fungicides, biofungicides, fertilizer and host-plant defense inducers (traditionally recommended for management of oomycete diseases) for control of Phytopythium crown and root rot was evaluated on ginkgo and red maple ‘October Glory’ seedlings in greenhouse and field trials. The fungicides such as Empress Intrinsic, Pageant Intrinsic, Segovis and Subdue MAXX were effective in both greenhouse and field trials, and the biofungicide Stargus reduced the disease severity caused by pathogen P. vexans on ginkgo and red maple plants in greenhouse trials. These results will help nursery producers to make proper management decisions for newly reported Phytopythium crown and root rot disease of ginkgo and red maple plants.

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Resistance to Phytophthora Species among Rootstocks for Cultivated Prunus Species

HortScience ◽

10.21273/hortsci10391-17 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 52 (11) ◽

pp. 1471-1476 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Gregory T. Browne

Keyword(s):

Root Rot ◽

Phytophthora Species ◽

Crown Rot ◽

Phytophthora Cactorum ◽

Prunus Species ◽

Phytophthora Megasperma ◽

Soil Flooding ◽

Root And Crown Rot ◽

Crown And Root Rot ◽

Multiple Species

Many species of Phytophthora de Bary are important pathogens of cultivated Prunus L. species worldwide, often invading the trees via their rootstocks. In a series of greenhouse trials, resistance to Phytophthora was tested in new and standard rootstocks for cultivated stone fruits, including almond. Successive sets of the rootstocks, propagated as hardwood cuttings or via micropropagation, were transplanted into either noninfested potting soil or potting soil infested with Phytophthora cactorum (Lebert & Cohn) J. Schöt., Phytophthora citricola Sawada, Phytophthora megasperma Drechs, or Phytophthora niederhauserii Z.G. Abad & J.A. Abad. Soil flooding was included in all trials to facilitate pathogen infection. In some trials, soil flooding treatments were varied to examine their effects on the rootstocks in both the absence and presence of Phytophthora. Two to 3 months after transplanting, resistance to the pathogens was assessed based on the severity of root and crown rot. ‘Hansen 536’ was consistently more susceptible than ‘Lovell’, ‘Nemaguard’, ‘Atlas’, ‘Viking’, ‘Citation’, and ‘Marianna 2624’ to root and/or crown rot caused by P. cactorum, P. citricola, and P. megasperma. By contrast, susceptibility to P. niederhauserii was similarly high among all eight tested genotypes of peach, four genotypes of peach × almond, two genotypes of (almond × peach) × peach, and one genotype of plum × almond. Most plum hybrids were highly and consistently resistant to crown rot caused by P. niederhauserii, but only ‘Marianna 2624’ was highly resistant to both crown and root rot caused by all of the Phytophthora species. The results indicate that there is a broad tendency for susceptibility of peach × almond rootstocks and a broad tendency for resistance of plum hybrid rootstocks to multiple species of Phytophthora.

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First Report of Phytopythium helicoides Causing Crown and Root Rot on Rhododendron pulchrum in China

Plant Disease ◽

10.1094/pdis-08-20-1798-pdn ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Zhenpeng Chen ◽

Xiao Yang ◽

Junxin Xue ◽

Binbin Jiao ◽

Yaxing Li ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cytochrome C ◽

Cytochrome C Oxidase ◽

Root Rot ◽

Internal Transcribed Spacer ◽

Its Region ◽

Morphological Features ◽

Mitochondrial Cytochrome ◽

Foliage Blight ◽

Crown And Root Rot ◽

Root Tissues

During a 2019–2020 survey of plant pathogenic oomycetes in Nanjing, China, a cluster of five adjacent Rhododendron pulchrum plants in Xuanwuhu Park exhibited symptoms including crown and root rot and wilting. foliage blight caused due to collar and had rotting crown and root tissues resultingrot foliage blight. Diseased roots were rinsed in water, cut into 10 mm pieces, immersed in 70% ethanol for 60 sec, and plated onto clarified V8 juice agar (cV8A) containingamended with pimaricin (20 mg/liter), ampicillin (125 mg/liter), rifampicin (10 mg/liter), and pentachloronitrobenzene (20 mg/liter). After three3 days of incubation at 26°C, Ffive Pythium-like isolatescoloniesisolates were obtained using hypalhyphal-tipping after 3 days of incubation at 25°C. Ten agar plugs (2×2 mm2) of each isolate were growntransferred into 10 mLl of 10% clarified V8 juice (cV8) in a 100 -mm plate at 26°C to produce mycelial mats. After 3three days, cV8 was replaced with sterile water. To stimulate sporangial production, 3–5 drops of soil extract solution were added to each plate. Five isolates had identical morphological features. Sporangia were terminal, ovoid to globose, andmeasuring 34.2 ± 6.2 µm (24.0–42.5 µm range) in length and 30.7 ± 6.6 µm (20.9–41.1 µm range) in width. Oogonia were not observed. The following primers were used to amplify the rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1COI) and 2 (cox2COII) genes of from aA representative isolate, PH-C were amplified using the primer pairs ITS6 and ITS4 (Cooke et al. 2000), OomCoxI-Levup and OomCoxI-Levlo (Robideau et al. 2011) and Cox2-F and Cox2-RC4 (Hudspeth et al. 2000), respectivelyPhe-1. Isolate A xxx675 bp, xxx657 bp and 561xxx bp fragmentPH-C , respectively were amplified and had have identical sequences of the ITS (GenBank ACN. MT824568), and cox1 (MT834959), COI and cox2 COII genes the rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 and 2 genes (GenBank ACN. MT824568, MT834959, (MT834958, respectively) sequences identical to those of Phytopythium helicoides (MN541109, MK879709, KT595689, respectively). Based on the morphological and molecular characters, all five isolatesthe causal agent waswere identified the species represented by Phe-1 was identified as P. helicoides. One-year-old R. pulchrum plants (approx. 0.3 m in height) grown in 8×8 cm2 pots were used in to test the pathogenicity trials. Ten plants wasere carefully dug up to expose root ballsclusterballs. TenThree- days -old cultures of the isolate PH-Che-1 were used as the inoculum. Five The pplantss wereere inoculated by inserting 10 agar plugs into thee root ball of each plantcluster. For inoculatingfive control plants, sterile cV8A discsplugs were used. All inoculated plants were re-potted using original fresh potting mix and potsture .Ten 3-day-old cV8A cultural plugs (5×5 mm2) of Phe-1 were evenly insert into the root ball of each of five plants, while sterile cV8A plugs were used for five control plants. All were then planted into their original pots. Plants were maintained in a growth chamber set at 26°C with a 12/12 h light/dark cycle and irrigated as needed. After 21–25 days, the inoculated plants had symptoms identical to those in the field, while the controls remained asymptomatic. Identical outcomes were obtained from two repeated The pathogenicity trials. test was repeatedconducted twice . and the coutcome was identical. Phytopythium. helicoides (Phe-1) was reisolated from all symptomatic plants inemerging from the pathogenicity trials. Phytopythium helicoides was found causing diseases of Asian lotus (Yin et al. 2015), mandarin orange (Chen et al. 2016), and kiwifruit (Wang et al. 2015) plants in China. Phytopythium isolates with identical morphological features to those of Phe-1 were recovered from rotted crown and root tissues of all inoculated plants. In this note, P. helicoides causing crown and root rot on R. pulchrum is reported for the first time. Globally, this is the first report of P. helicoides causing crown blight and root rot of R. pulchrum. Additional surveys are being conducted forto mapping the distribution of P. helicoides in Nanjing, Province of China.

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Efficacy of Fungicides and Biopesticides for Management of Phytophthora Crown and Root Rot of Gerber Dais

Plant Health Progress ◽

10.1094/php-2011-0512-01-rs ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 12 (1) ◽

pp. 13 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

D. M. Benson ◽

K. C. Parker

Keyword(s):

Root Rot ◽

Fungicide Resistance ◽

Pathogen Resistance ◽

Crown Rot ◽

Disease Development ◽

Greenhouse Production ◽

Run Off ◽

Action Committee ◽

Root And Crown Rot ◽

Crown And Root Rot

Several fungicides and biopesticides were evaluated for control of Phytophthora crown and root rot of Gerber daisy caused by P. cryptogea, a frequently encountered pathogen in greenhouse production. In greenhouse trials, biopesticides were applied 3 to 5 days before inoculation with P. cryptogea, while fungicides were applied at the time of inoculation. Efficacy of the treatments was assessed according to fresh plant top weights and root rot ratings at the end of experiments. Phosphite salt fungicides such as AgriFos, Aliette, Alude, Magellan and Vital sprayed to run off prior to inoculation were ineffective. Similarly, the strobulurins (Disarm, Heritage, and Insignia) as a drench and the biopesticides (Muscodor albus, Remedier, and Taegro) incorporated or as a drench failed to prevent root and crown rot and collapse of plants. Adorn as a drench at 2 fl oz/100 gal prevented Phytophthora crown and root rot in two of three trial years. Fenstop as a drench at 14 fl oz/100 gal or Orvego as a drench at rates of 22.5 to 34 fl oz/100 gal consistently controlled disease in three years of trials. Segway as a drench at 6 fl oz/100 gal varied in efficacy but in all trials, disease development was less than the non-treated, inoculated control. Because the effective fungicides are in different Fungicide Resistance Action Committee codes, growers have valuable rotation options for managing crown and root rot caused by P. cryptogea on Gerber daisy and avoiding pathogen resistance in the Phytophthora populations. Accepted for publication 18 February 2011. Published 12 May 2011.

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Using Soil-Applied Fungicides to Manage Phytophthora Crown and Root Rot on Summer Squash

Plant Disease ◽

10.1094/pdis-12-11-1071-re ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 97 (1) ◽

pp. 107-112 ◽

Cited By ~ 10

Author(s):

M. D. Meyer ◽

M. K. Hausbeck

Keyword(s):

Root Rot ◽

Yield Loss ◽

Field Trials ◽

Crown Rot ◽

Growth Stages ◽

Post Inoculation ◽

Application Method ◽

Summer Squash ◽

Application Methods ◽

Crown And Root Rot

Phytophthora crown and root rot (Phytophthora capsici) of summer squash is especially difficult to manage because all commercial cultivars are highly susceptible to P. capsici. Producers have traditionally relied on foliar fungicide applications to control Phytophthora crown and root rot despite their limited efficacy. Soil fungicide applications, including via subsurface drip chemigation, have recently gained interest as a method of improving control of P. capsici infections. In this study, soil drenches and foliar applications of 11 fungicides were compared for control of Phytophthora crown and root rot of summer squash in replicated field and greenhouse trials. Fungicides were applied at 7-day intervals. Incidence (%) of plant death was assessed from 7 to 42 days post inoculation (dpi) in field trials. Crown rot severity was rated on a scale of 1 (no wilting) to 5 (plant death) from 5 to 21 dpi in greenhouse trials. Results of field and greenhouse trials were similar. Plant death of ‘Cougar’ following inoculation with P. capsici isolate 12889 occurred at all growth stages from first true-leaf to full maturity in field trials. Plant death 42 dpi differed significantly (P ≤ 0.0001) among fungicides and application methods. The fungicide–application method interaction also was significant. Some fungicides were ineffective regardless of application method. In general, soil drenches were more effective than foliar applications at limiting plant death but no treatment completely controlled disease symptoms. Mean plant death 42 dpi was 41% for soil drenches and 92% for foliar sprays. Drenches of fluopicolide, mandipropamid, or dimethomorph limited plant death to ≤10% and prevented yield loss associated with root and crown rot. Foliar applications generally did not reduce plant death compared with the untreated, inoculated control, and were unable to prevent yield loss in field trials. In greenhouse trials, crown rot severity differed significantly (P ≤ 0.0001) among fungicides, application methods, and cultivars when plants were inoculated with P. capsici isolate 12889 or SP98. Crown rot was less severe and disease progress was slower following soil drenches than foliar applications. Some fungicide treatments were more effective on ‘Leopard,’ which was less susceptible to P. capsici than ‘Cougar.’ Soil application methods, including soil drench and drip chemigation, should be evaluated when fungicides are registered for soilborne disease control, because these methods provide better control of Phytophthora crown and root rot than foliar application.

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Wilt, Crown, and Root Rot of Common Rose Mallow (Hibiscus moscheutos) Caused by a NovelFusariumsp.

Plant Disease ◽

10.1094/pdis-05-16-0717-re ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 101 (2) ◽

pp. 354-358 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

S. L. Lupien ◽

F. M. Dugan ◽

K. M. Ward ◽

K. O’Donnell

Keyword(s):

Rna Polymerase Ii ◽

Root Rot ◽

Molecular Phylogenetics ◽

Phylogenetic Analyses ◽

Elongation Factor ◽

Crown Rot ◽

Root And Crown Rot ◽

Fusarium Sp ◽

Crown And Root Rot ◽

Rot Disease

A new crown and root rot disease of landscape plantings of the malvaceous ornamental common rose mallow (Hibiscus moscheutos) was first detected in Washington State in 2012. The main objectives of this study were to complete Koch’s postulates, document the disease symptoms photographically, and identify the causal agent using multilocus molecular phylogenetics. Results of the pathogenicity experiments demonstrated that the Fusarium sp. could induce vascular wilt and root and crown rot symptoms on H. moscheutos ‘Luna Rose’. Maximum-likelihood and maximum-parsimony phylogenetic analyses of portions of translation elongation factor 1-α and DNA-directed RNA polymerase II largest and second-largest subunit indicated that the Hibiscus pathogen represents a novel, undescribed Fusarium sp. nested within the Fusarium buharicum species complex.

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Fungi associated with root and crown rot of wheat in the Kerman province of Iran

Plant Protection ◽

10.33804/pp.004.01.3207 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 4 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Maryam Rouzbeh ◽

Gholam Reza Baradaran

Keyword(s):

Root Rot ◽

Fusarium Species ◽

Wheat Root ◽

Fungal Species ◽

Control Measures ◽

Crown Rot ◽

Pathogenicity Test ◽

Potato Dextrose Agar Medium ◽

Root And Crown Rot ◽

Crown And Root Rot

In the growing season of 2016-17, the fungal agents associated with crown and root rot of wheat in the Kerman province of Iran were identified. For this purpose, different fields were randomly selected for sampling and percentages of disease were estimated. Infected parts of root and crown were surface sterilized and cultured on Potato Dextrose Agar medium. A total of 260 isolates were obtained and identified on the basis of macroscopic and microscopic characters and valid keys. Of the total isolates, 212 belonged to Fusarium, 28 to Bipolaris and 20 isolates belonged to Drechslera species. Fungal species included F. oxysporum (96 isolates), F. nivale (20 isolates), F. poae (18 isolates), F. anthophilum (9 isolates), F. subglutinans (22 isolates), F. solani (32 isolates), F. culmorum (11 isolate), F. proliferatum (2 isolate), F. chlamydosporum (2 isolates), B. kusanoi (11 isolates), B. australiensis (17 isolates) and D. tetrarrhene (20 isolates). The pathogenicity test was conducted using greenhouse root dip technique. The pathogenicity confirmed five Fusarium species, two Bipolaris and one Drechslera species associated with wheat root and crown rot in Kerman province of Iran. It is concluded that wheat root and crown rot is fairly distributed in the Kerman province and showed virulence of varying degrees demanding strict control measures to minimize losses.

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Integrated Control of Rhizoctonia Crown and Root Rot of Sugar Beet with Fungicides and Antagonistic Bacteria

Plant Disease ◽

10.1094/pdis.2001.85.7.718 ◽

2001 ◽

Vol 85 (7) ◽

pp. 718-722 ◽

Cited By ~ 61

Author(s):

Sebastian Kiewnick ◽

Barry J. Jacobsen ◽

Andrea Braun-Kiewnick ◽

Joyce L. A. Eckhoff ◽

Jerry W. Bergman

Keyword(s):

Sugar Beet ◽

Root Rot ◽

Integrated Control ◽

The United States ◽

Field Trials ◽

Sugar Yield ◽

Economic Losses ◽

Yield Increase ◽

Leaf Stage ◽

Crown And Root Rot

Rhizoctonia crown and root rot, caused by the fungus Rhizoctonia solani AG 2-2, is one of the most damaging sugar beet diseases worldwide and causes significant economic losses in more than 25% of the sugar beet production area in the United States. We report on field trials in the years 1996 to 1999 testing both experimental fungicides and antagonistic Bacillus sp. for their potential to reduce disease severity and increase sugar yield in trials inoculated with R. solani AG 2-2. Fungicides were applied as in-furrow sprays at planting or as band sprays directed at the crown at the four-leaf stage, or four- plus eight-leaf stage, while bacteria were applied at the four-leaf stage only. The fungicides azoxystrobin and tebuconazole reduced crown and root rot disease by 50 to 90% over 3 years when used at rates of 76 to 304 g a.i./ha and 250 g a.i./ha, respectively. The disease index at harvest was reduced and the root and sugar yield increased with azoxystrobin compared with tebuconazole. The combination of azoxystrobin applied at 76 g a.i./ha and the Bacillus isolate MSU-127 resulted in best disease reduction and greatest root and sucrose yield increase.

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First Report of a Phytopythium litorale Species Causing Crown and Root Rot on Rhododendron pulchrum in China

Plant Disease ◽

10.1094/pdis-04-21-0830-pdn ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Yaxing Li ◽

Yangfan Feng ◽

Cuiping Wu ◽

Junxin Xue ◽

Binbin Jiao ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Root Rot ◽

Morphological Characters ◽

Morphological Features ◽

Crown Rot ◽

Sterile Water ◽

First Report ◽

Inoculation Method ◽

Platanus Orientalis ◽

Crown And Root Rot ◽

Root Tissues

During a survey of pathogenic oomycetes in Nanjing, China from June 2019 to October 2020, at least ten adjacent Rhododendron pulchrum plants at a Jiangjun Mountain scenic spot showed symptoms of blight, and crown and root discoloration . Symptomatic root tissues collected from three 6-year-old plants were rinsed with water, cut into 10-mm pieces, surface sterilized with 70% ethanol for 1 min, and plated onto 10% clarified V8 PARP agar (cV8A-PARP) containing pimaricin (20 mg/liter), ampicillin (125 mg/liter), rifampicin (10 mg/liter), and pentachloronitrobenzene (20 mg/liter). Four Pythium-like isolates were recovered after three days of incubation at 26°C, and purified using hyphal-tipping. Ten agar plugs (2×2 mm2) of each isolate were grown in 10 mL of 10% clarified V8 juice (cV8) in a 10 cm plate at 26°C for 3 days to produce mycelial mats, and then the cV8 was replaced with sterile water. To stimulate sporangial production, three to five drops of soil extract solution were added to each plate. Sporangia were terminal, ovoid to globose, and the size is 24 to 45.6 (mean 34.7) (n=10.8) in length x 23.6 to 36.0 (mean 29.8) (n=6.2) in width. Gametangia were not observed in cV8A or liquid media after 30 days. For colony morphology, the isolates were sub-cultured onto three solid microbial media (cV8A-PARP, potato dextrose agar, corn meal agar) . All isolates had identical morphological features in the three media. Complete ITS and partial LSU and cox2 gene regions were amplified using primer pairs ITS1/ITS4, NL1/NL4, and FM58/FM66 , respectively. The ITS, LSU, and cox2 sequences of isolate PC-dj1 (GenBank Acc. No. MW205746, MW208002, MW208003) were 100.00% (936/936 nt), 100.00% (772/772 nt), and 99.64% (554/556 nt) identical to those of JX985743, MT042003, and GU133521, respectively. We built a maximum-likelihood tree of Phytopythium species using the concatenated dataset (ITS, LSU, cox2) to observe interspecific differences. Based on the morphological characters and sequences, isolate PC-djl was identified as Phytopythium litorale . As the four isolates (PC-dj1, PC-dj2, PC-dj3 and PC-dj4) tested had identical morphological characters and molecular marker sequences, the pathogenicity of the representative isolate, PC-dj1, was tested using two inoculation methods on ten one-year-old R. pulchrum plants. For the first inoculation method, plants were removed from the pot, and their roots were rinsed with tap water to remove the soil. Each of these plants was placed in a glass flask containing 250 mL of sterile water and 10 blocks (10 x 10 mm2) of mycelial mats harvested from a three-day-old culture of P. litorale, while the other plant was placed in sterile water as a control, and incubated at 26°C. After three days, symptoms including crown rot, root rot and blight was observed on the inoculated plants whereas the control remained asymptomatic. For the second inoculation method, ten plants were dug up to expose the root ball. Ten three-day-old cV8A plugs (5×5 mm2) from a PC-dj1 culture or sterile cV8A plugs were evenly insert into the root ball of a plant before it was planted back into the original pots. Both plants were maintained in a growth chamber set at 26°C with a 12/12 h light/dark cycle and irrigated as needed. After 14 to 21 days, the inoculated plant had symptoms resembling those in the field , while the control plant remained asymptomatic. Each inoculation method was repeated at triplicate and the outcomes were identical. Phytopythium isolates with morphological features and sequences identical to those of PC-dj1 were recovered from rotted crown and root tissues of all inoculated plants. Previously, P. litorale was found causing diseases of apple and Platanus orientalis in Turkey, fruit rot and seedling damping-off of yellow squash in southern Georgia, USA. This is the first report of this species causing crown and root rot on R. pulchrum, an important ornamental plant species in China. Additional surveys are ongoing to determine the distribution of P. litorale in the city of Nanjing.

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Genetic Determinants of Wheat Resistance to Common Root Rot (Spot Blotch), Fusarium Crown Rot, and Sharp Eyespot

10.1101/2020.07.30.228932 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Jun Su ◽

Jiaojie Zhao ◽

Shuqing Zhao ◽

Mengyu Li ◽

Xiaofeng Shang ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Root Rot ◽

Spot Blotch ◽

Crown Rot ◽

Genetic Determinants ◽

Common Root ◽

Fusarium Crown Rot ◽

Common Root Rot ◽

Sharp Eyespot ◽

Root And Crown Rot ◽

Moderate Resistance

Due to the field soil changes, high density planting, and straw-returning methods, wheat common root rot (spot blotch), Fusarium crown rot (FCR), and sharp eyespot have become severe threatens to global wheat productions. Only a few wheat genotypes show moderate resistance to these root and crown rot fungal diseases, and the genetic determinants of wheat resistance to these devastating diseases have been poorly understood. This review summarizes the recent progress of genetic studies on wheat resistance to common root rot, Fusarium crown rot, and sharp eyespot. Wheat germplasms with relative higher resistance are highlighted and genetic loci controlling the resistance to each of the disease are summarized.

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